Vegetable foods were stored in specially constructed pits in the ground. After they had been dug, the pits were lined with woven mats. The dried fruits or vegetables that were to be stored were put into large baskets (The Pilgrims told of digging up one such basket that had a capacity of three or four bushels[93]); the baskets were put into the pits, covered with more mats and perhaps wooden planks, and the whole thing was covered with earth so that a small mound marking the place was formed.[94] When such could be obtained, a metal pot rather than a basket might serve as a storage container.[95] The dried fish was also stored for winter use, but there is no mention of its being put into the storage pits. It might have been kept in some sort of woven or bark container in the house.[96]
Food Preparation: Meat and fish were prepared by boiling or roasting.[97] Meat was roasted by putting it on the end of a forked stick placed in the ground near the fire.[98] Fresh or dried meat, fish, and shellfish were cut into small pieces and boiled into a stew—whose constituent parts probably varied according to what was available on any given day. A pot of this stew was probably kept over the fire almost all the time, and as some was eaten new ingredients were added. As the following passage by Wood suggests, it was “... made thicke with Fishes, Fowles, and Beasts boyled all together; some remaining raw, the rest converted by over-much seething to a loathed mash....”[99] Vegetables were also added to the stew pot. Jerusalem artichokes, ground nuts and other roots, pumpkins, squashes, corn, and beans are mentioned specifically.[100] Walnuts, acorns, and chestnuts were ground into a powder and added to the broth to thicken it.[101] Clam juice, which functioned as a substitute for salt, was added as seasoning.[102] Williams tells of another sort of dish, prepared from the heads of bass, “... the braines and fat of it being very much and sweet as marrow”.[103] Notes by John Winthrop give the designation Sukatash to a dish which is venison, fish and Indian corn boiled together.[104]
Vegetable foods were also prepared in a number of other ways and combinations. Whole corn was boiled—with or without beans.[105] Corn ground into meal was an important item in the diet of the Wampanoags. Corn kernels were dried and parched in the coals of the fire. Ashes were then sifted out of the parched corn, and it was ground fine with hand milling equipment. A woman then sifted the meal through a basketry sieve to catch out unground lumps, and the result was a meal called Nocake. Nocake was the food of anyone when on a journey away from home. A few spoonfuls made a meal; it was taken with water to facilitate swallowing.[106]
For use at home, the parched meal might be mixed with water and boiled into a porridge.[107] In a more elaborate recipe it was mixed with crushed strawberries, made into dough, wrapped in leaves and baked in the ashes to make a kind of bread.[108] It was also made into small cakes that were boiled. Williams mentions a dish made by mixing corn meal with powdered dried currants, “... which is as sweet to them as plum or spice cake to the English”.[109] He also says that clam juice was used as a seasoning for bread.[110]
Of the nuts used by the Wampanoags, acorns required additional work, since the bitter tannic acid had to be removed from them by some sort of leaching process before they could be eaten. This was done by boiling.[111] Oil was extracted from walnuts and used for a variety of purposes.[112]
FOOD CONSUMPTION
The diet of the Wampanoags, because of their seasonal cycle of resource use, varied considerably. While many kinds of food were preserved for use beyond their season by drying, the supply was probably not so great that the diet was identical throughout the year, if only in terms of the relative quantities of the kinds of food eaten. The diet of the Wampanoags included several varieties of land animals,[113] of which deer were probably the most important. Fresh and salt water fish, shellfish, fowl, and marine mammals, such as were available, were also eaten. Corn, beans, and cucurbits, which they raised, plus various wild nuts, roots, and fruits made up the vegetable part of the diet. While there is evidence that the Indians in Maine used maple sugar, there seems to have been none used in southeastern New England aboriginally.[114] Altogether, according to Bennett, who has made a study of the diet of the Indians of southeastern New England, the Indian diet included more vegetable products than the diet of Europeans living in the same area today.[115]
Squashes came to replace corn as the dietary mainstay in the late summer.[116] Clams seem to have been dug in all seasons of the year; they are spoken of as a food to which the Wampanoags turned when other sources of food dwindled.[117] Acorns were also a food turned to when the preferred diet was scarce, although sometimes they were eaten when there was plenty of corn, as a novelty item.[118] Writing of a visit to the Plymouth area in June, Martin Pring noted that the food the Indians were eating at that time of the year was mostly fish.[119]
There is not a great deal known about Wampanoag eating habits, but some general impressions can be put together. Morton tells us that “... they feede continually”.[120] Wood, on the other hand, notes that it was “... their fashion to eate all at some times, and sometimes nothing at all in two or three dayes....”[121] The apparent contradiction is probably the result of the two observers looking at different sets of cultural circumstances. When there was food available in abundance, everyone probably ate, according to his wishes, out of the stew pot at any time. There were also formal meals held on at least the following occasions: when a guest arrived (i.e. visiting Englishman) and when groups would gather for games and dances. Wood gives a description of what such a “sit-down” meal was like:
... dishing it up in a rude manner, placing it on the verdant carpet of the earth which Nature spreads them, without either trenchers, napkins, or knives, upon which their hunger-sawced stomacks impatient of delayes fals aboard without scrupling at unwashed hands, without bread, salt or beere: Lolling on the Turkish fashion, not ceasing till their full bellies leave nothing but emptie platters ... eating three or foure cornes with a mouthfull of fish or flesh, sometimes eating meate first, and cornes after, filling chinkes with their broth ... At home they will eate till their bellies stand forth ready to split with fullness....[122]