There was one that kneeled upon a deer skin, with the company around him in a ring, who kneeled, striking upon the ground with their hands and with sticks, and muttering or humming with their mouths. Besides him who kneeled in the ring there also stood one with a gun in his hand. Then he on the deerskin made a speech, and all manifested assent to it; and so they did many times together. Then they bid him with a gun go out of the ring, which he did; but when he was out, they called again; but he seemed to make a stand. Then they called the more earnestly, till he turned again. Then they all sang. Then they gave him two guns in each hand one. And so he on the deerskin began again; and at the end of every sentence in his speaking they all assented, and humming or muttering with their mouths and striking upon the ground with their hands. Then they bid him with the two guns go out of the ring again, but he made a stand. So they called him with greater earnestness; but he stood reeling and wavering as if he knew not whether he should stand or fall, or which way to go. Then they called him with exceeding great vehemency, all of them, one and another. After a little while he turned in, staggering as he went, with his arms stretched out, in each hand a gun. As soon as he came in, they all sang and rejoiced exceedingly a while, and then he upon the deerskin made another speech, unto which they all assented in a rejoicing manner....[477]
The Wampanoags were skillful both in the use of their weapons and in avoiding enemy fire. In the woods, where most fighting seems to have been done, warriors used trees for cover. In the open, bark shields were used to ward off arrows, and the fighters were skillful at dodging out of the way.[478] As a rule, when a warrior had run out of arrows he left the battle.[479] As a result, mortality was not high, judged by the standards of European wars of the period. In a large battle, however, as many as twenty men might be lost.[480]
The tactic of surprise was used whenever possible. The occasion of a storm that would drive the enemy indoors was a good opportunity for attack; warriors could enter the village unnoticed and strike down the foe in their houses before they could organize for defense.[481]
Sometimes battles took place on the water. One reporter describes seeing thirty or forty canoes full of men engaged in a pitched battle.[482]
Warriors who were killed, or wounded so they could not escape, had their heads, hands, and feet hacked off and carried away as trophies.[483] Scalping was a practice that appeared late in the seventeenth century; it may have been a European introduction.[484] Most male captives faced a death by torture. Female captives were kept alive; it is likely that they were adopted into the tribe as wives or servants.[485]
IDEAS ABOUT NATURE AND MAN
From childhood the Wampanoags learned to make certain observations of the stars, planets, and of the seasons and weather.[486] The time of day was measured by the height of the sun in the day and by the moon and stars at night.[487] Longer spans of time were kept account of in terms of the moon and of “summers” and “winters”.[488] Reckoning according to the moon, they had thirteen months, each with its own name.[489] Many of the stars were named; the north star was called Maske, meaning “bear”.[490] Winds were named according to their direction; of these there were seven to nine.[491] By observing the winds and the sky the Wampanoags made fairly accurate weather predictions.[492]
SICKNESS
The Wampanoag practice of sweat bathing was thought to have both therapeutic and preventive benefits. First the sweat house was heated by putting a great number of hot stones inside. Then the naked bathers entered and the door was stopped up. The bathers sat inside, smoking their pipes for as long as they could bear the heat—perhaps an hour or so. The sweat bath was then terminated by a dash outside and a plunge into the cold water of a nearby lake or stream. Sweat bathing was said to cleanse and refresh the body and thus be good for general health. It was also used to cure diseases, sometimes in combination with other types of remedies.[493]