Throughout the world, wherever silk is produced, the greatest care is bestowed on selecting the cocoons from which the moths for breeding are to be reared. A careful cultivator (20/14. Robinet 'Vers a Soie' 1848 page 271.) likewise examines the moths themselves, and destroys those that are not perfect. But what more immediately concerns us is that certain families in France devote themselves to raising eggs for sale. (20/15. Quatrefages 'Les Maladies du Ver a Soie' 1859 page 101.) In China, near Shanghai, the inhabitants of two small districts have the privilege of raising eggs for the whole surrounding country, and that they may give up their whole time to this business, they are interdicted by law from producing silk. (20/16. M. Simon in 'Bull. de la Soc. d'Acclimat.' tome 9 1862 page 221.)
The care which successful breeders take in matching their birds is surprising. Sir John Sebright, whose fame is perpetuated by the "Sebright Bantam," used to spend "two and three days in examining, consulting, and disputing with a friend which were the best of five or six birds." (20/17. 'The Poultry Chronicle' volume 1 1854 page 607.) Mr. Bult, whose pouter-pigeons won so many prizes, and were exported to North America under the charge of a man sent on purpose, told me that he always deliberated for several days before he matched each pair. Hence we can understand the advice of an eminent fancier, who writes (20/18. J.M. Eaton 'A Treatise on Fancy Pigeons' 1852 page 14 and 'A Treatise on the Almond Tumbler' 1851 page 11.) "I would here particularly guard you against having too great a variety of pigeons, otherwise you will know a little of all, but nothing about one as it ought to be known." Apparently it transcends the power of the human intellect to breed all kinds: "it is possible that there may be a few fanciers that have a good general knowledge of fancy pigeons; but there are many more who labour under the delusion of supposing they know what they do not." The excellence of one sub- variety, the Almond Tumbler, lies in the plumage, carriage, head, beak, and eye; but it is too presumptuous in the beginner to try for all these points. The great judge above quoted says, "There are some young fanciers who are over-covetous, who go for all the above five properties at once; they have their reward by getting nothing." We thus see that breeding even fancy pigeons is no simple art: we may smile at the solemnity of these precepts, but he who laughs will win no prizes.
What methodical selection has effected for our animals is sufficiently proved, as already remarked, by our Exhibitions. So greatly were the sheep belonging to some of the earlier breeders, such as Bakewell and Lord Western, changed, that many persons could not be persuaded that they had not been crossed. Our pigs, as Mr. Corringham remarks (20/19. 'Journal Royal Agricultural Soc.' volume 6 page 22.) during the last twenty years have undergone, through rigorous selection together with crossing, a complete metamorphosis. The first exhibition for poultry was held in the Zoological Gardens in 1845; and the improvement effected since that time has been great. As Mr. Bailey, the great judge, remarked to me, it was formerly ordered that the comb of the Spanish cock should be upright, and in four or five years all good birds had upright combs; it was ordered that the Polish cock should have no comb or wattles, and now a bird thus furnished would be at once disqualified; beards were ordered, and out of fifty-seven pens lately (1860) exhibited at the Crystal Palace, all had beards. So it has been in many other cases. But in all cases the judges order only what is occasionally produced and what can be improved and rendered constant by selection. The steady increase in weight during the last few years in our fowls, turkeys, ducks, and geese is notorious; "six-pound ducks are now common, whereas four pounds was formerly the average." As the time required to make a change has not often been recorded, it may be worth mentioning that it took Mr. Wicking thirteen years to put a clean white head on an almond tumbler's body, "a triumph," says another fancier, "of which he may be justly proud." (20/20. 'Poultry Chronicle' volume 2 1855 page 596.)
Mr. Tollet, of Betley Hall, selected cows, and especially bulls, descended from good milkers, for the sole purpose of improving his cattle for the production of cheese; he steadily tested the milk with the lactometer, and in eight years he increased, as I was informed by him, the product in proportion of four to three. Here is a curious case (20/21. Isid. Geoffroy St.-Hilaire 'Hist. Nat. Gen.' tome 3 page 254.) of steady but slow progress, with the end not as yet fully attained: in 1784 a race of silkworms was introduced into France, in which one hundred in the thousand failed to produce white cocoons; but now after careful selection during sixty-five generations, the proportion of yellow cocoons has been reduced to thirty-five in the thousand.
With plants selection has been followed with the same good result as with animals. But the process is simpler, for plants in the great majority of cases bear both sexes. Nevertheless, with most kinds it is necessary to take as much care to prevent crosses as with animals or unisexual plants; but with some plants, such as peas, this care is not necessary. With all improved plants, excepting of course those which are propagated by buds, cuttings, etc., it is almost indispensable to examine the seedlings and destroy those which depart from the proper type. This is called "roguing," and is, in fact, a form of selection, like the rejection of inferior animals. Experienced horticulturists and agriculturists incessantly urge every one to preserve the finest plants for the production of seed.
Although plants often present much more conspicuous variations than animals, yet the closest attention is generally requisite to detect each slight and favourable change. Mr. Masters relates (20/22. 'Gardener's Chronicle' 1850 page 198.) how "many a patient hour was devoted," whilst he was young, to the detection of differences in peas intended for seed. Mr. Barnet (20/23. 'Transact. Hort. Soc.' volume 6 page 152.) remarks that the old scarlet American strawberry was cultivated for more than a century without producing a single variety; and another writer observes how singular it was that when gardeners first began to attend to this fruit it began to vary; the truth no doubt being that it had always varied, but that, until slight variations were selected and propagated by seed, no conspicuous result was obtained. The finest shades of difference in wheat have been discriminated and selected with almost as much care as, in the case of the higher animals, for instance by Col. Le Couteur and more especially by Major Hallett.
It may be worth while to give a few examples of methodical selection with plants; but in fact the great improvement of all our anciently cultivated plants may be attributed to selection long carried on, in part methodically, and in part unconsciously. I have shown in a former chapter how the weight of the gooseberry has been increased by systematic selection and culture. The flowers of the Heartsease have been similarly increased in size and regularity of outline. With the Cineraria, Mr. Glenny (20/24. 'Journal of Horticulture' 1862 page 369.) "was bold enough when the flowers were ragged and starry and ill defined in colour, to fix a standard which was then considered outrageously high and impossible, and which, even if reached, it was said, we should be no gainers by, as it would spoil the beauty of the flowers. He maintained that he was right; and the event has proved it to be so." The doubling of flowers has several times been effected by careful selection: the Rev. W. Williamson (20/25 'Transact. Hort. Soc.' volume 4 page 381.), after sowing during several years seed of Anemone coronaria, found a plant with one additional petal; he sowed the seed of this, and by perseverance in the same course obtained several varieties with six or seven rows of petals. The single Scotch rose was doubled, and yielded eight good varieties in nine or ten years. (20/26. 'Transact. Hort. Soc.' volume 4 page 285.) The Canterbury bell (Campanula medium) was doubled by careful selection in four generations. (20/27. Rev. W. Bromehead in 'Gardener's Chronicle' 1857 page 550.) In four years Mr. Buckman (20/28. 'Gardener's Chronicle' 1862 page 721.), by culture and careful selection, converted parsnips, raised from wild seed, into a new and good variety. By selection during a long course of years, the early maturity of peas has been hastened by between ten and twenty-one days. (20/29. Dr. Anderson in 'The Bee' volume 6 page 96; Mr. Barnes in 'Gardener's Chronicle' 1844 page 476.) A more curious case is offered by the beet plant, which since its cultivation in France, has almost exactly doubled its yield of sugar. This has been effected by the most careful selection; the specific gravity of the roots being regularly tested, and the best roots saved for the production of seed. (20/30. Godron 'De l'Espece' 1859 tome 2 page 69; 'Gardener's Chronicle' 1854 page 258.)
SELECTION BY ANCIENT AND SEMI-CIVILISED PEOPLE.
In attributing so much importance to the selection of animals and plants, it may be objected, that methodical selection would not have been carried on during ancient times. A distinguished naturalist considers it as absurd to suppose that semi-civilised people should have practised selection of any kind. Undoubtedly the principle has been systematically acknowledged and followed to a far greater extent within the last hundred years than at any former period, and a corresponding result has been gained; but it would be a greater error to suppose, as we shall immediately see, that its importance was not recognised and acted on during the most ancient times, and by semi- civilised people. I should premise that many facts now to be given only show that care was taken in breeding; but when this is the case, selection is almost sure to be practised to a certain extent. We shall hereafter be enabled better to judge how far selection, when only occasionally carried on, by a few of the inhabitants of a country, will slowly produce a great effect.
In a well-known passage in the thirtieth chapter of Genesis, rules are given for influencing, as was then thought possible, the colour of sheep; and speckled and dark breeds are spoken of as being kept separate. By the time of David the fleece was likened to snow. Youatt (20/31. 'On Sheep' page 18.), who has discussed all the passages in relation to breeding in the Old Testament, concludes that at this early period "some of the best principles of breeding must have been steadily and long pursued." It was ordered, according to Moses, that "Thou shalt not let thy cattle gender with a diverse kind;" but mules were purchased (20/32. Volz 'Beitrage zur Kulturgeschichte' 1852 s. 47.) so that at this early period other nations must have crossed the horse and ass. It is said (20/33. Mitford 'History of Greece' volume 1 page 73.) that Erichthonius, some generations before the Trojan war, had many brood-mares, "which by his care and judgment in the choice of stallions produced a breed of horses superior to any in the surrounding countries." Homer (Book 5) speaks of Aeneas' horses as bred from mares which were put to the steeds of Laomedon. Plato, in his 'Republic' says to Glaucus, "I see that you raise at your house a great many dogs for the chase. Do you take care about breeding and pairing them? Among animals of good blood, are there not always some which are superior to the rest?" To which Glaucus answers in the affirmative. (20/34. Dr. Dally translated in 'Anthropological Review' May 1864 page 101.) Alexander the Great selected the finest Indian cattle to send to Macedonia to improve the breed. (20/35. Volz 'Beitrage' etc. 1852 s. 80.) According to Pliny (20/36 'History of the World' chapter 45.), King Pyrrhus had an especially valuable breed of oxen: and he did not suffer the bulls and cows to come together till four years old, that the breed might not degenerate. Virgil, in his Georgics (lib. 3), gives as strong advice as any modern agriculturist could do, carefully to select the breeding stock; "to note the tribe, the lineage, and the sire; whom to reserve for husband of the herd;"—to brand the progeny;—to select sheep of the purest white, and to examine if their tongues are swarthy. We have seen that the Romans kept pedigrees of their pigeons, and this would have been a senseless proceeding had not great care been taken in breeding them. Columella gives detailed instructions about breeding fowls: "Let the breeding hens therefore be of a choice colour, a robust body, square-built, full-breasted, with large heads, with upright and bright-red combs. Those are believed to be the best bred which have five toes." (20/37. 'Gardener's Chronicle' 1848 page 323.) According to Tacitus, the Celts attended to the races of their domestic animals; and Caesar states that they paid high prices to merchants for fine imported horses. (20/38. Reynier 'De l'Economie des Celtes' 1818 pages 487, 503.) In regard to plants, Virgil speaks of yearly culling the largest seeds; and Celsus says, "where the corn and crop is but small, we must pick out the best ears of corn, and of them lay up our seed separately by itself." (20/39. Le Couteur on 'Wheat' page 15.)