During the formation or improvement of a breed, its members will always be found to vary much in those characters to which especial attention is directed, and of which each slight improvement is eagerly sought and selected. Thus, with short-faced tumbler-pigeons, the shortness of the beak, shape of head and plumage,—with carriers, the length of the beak and wattle,—with fantails, the tail and carriage,—with Spanish fowls, the white face and comb,—with long-eared rabbits, the length of ear, are all points which are eminently variable. So it is in every case; and the large price paid for first-rate animals proves the difficulty of breeding them up to the highest standard of excellence. This subject has been discussed by fanciers,[[55]] and the greater prizes given for highly improved breeds, in comparison with those given for old breeds which are not now undergoing rapid improvement, have been fully justified. Nathusius makes[[56]] a similar remark when discussing the less uniform character of improved Shorthorn cattle and of the English horse, in comparison, for example, with the unennobled cattle of Hungary, or with the horses of the Asiatic steppes. This want of uniformity in the parts which at the time are undergoing selection chiefly depends on the strength of the principle of reversion; but it likewise depends to a certain extent on the continued variability of the parts which have recently varied. That the same parts do continue varying in the same manner we must admit, for if it were not so, there could be no improvement beyond an early standard of excellence, and we know that such improvement is not only possible, but is of general occurrence.
As a consequence of continued variability, and more especially of reversion, all highly improved races, if neglected or not subjected to incessant selection, soon degenerate. Youatt gives a curious instance of this in some cattle formerly kept in Glamorganshire; but in this case the cattle were not fed with sufficient care. Mr. Baker, in his memoir on the Horse, sums up: “It must have been observed in the preceding pages that, whenever there has been neglect, the breed has proportionally deteriorated.”[[57]] If a considerable number of improved cattle, sheep, or other animals of the same race, were allowed to breed freely together, with no selection, but with no change in their condition of life, there can be no doubt that after a score or hundred generations they would be very far from excellent of their kind; but, from what we see of the many common races of dogs, cattle, fowls, pigeons, etc., which without any particular care have long retained nearly the same character, we have no grounds for believing that they would altogether depart from their type.
It is a general belief amongst breeders that characters of all kinds become fixed by long-continued inheritance. But I have attempted to show in the fourteenth chapter that this belief apparently resolves itself into the following proposition, namely, that all characters whatever, whether recently acquired or ancient, tend to be transmitted, but that those which have already long withstood all counteracting influences, will, as a general rule, continue to withstand them, and consequently be faithfully transmitted.
Tendency in Man to carry the practice of Selection to an extreme point.
It is an important principle that in the process of selection man almost invariably wishes to go to an extreme point. Thus, there is no limit to his desire to breed certain kinds of horses and dogs as fleet as possible, and others as strong as possible; certain kinds of sheep for extreme fineness, and others for extreme length of wool; and he wishes to produce fruit, grain, tubers, and other useful parts of plants, as large and excellent as possible. With animals bred for amusement, the same principle is even more powerful; for fashion, as we see in our dress, always runs to extremes. This view has been expressly admitted by fanciers. Instances were given in the chapters on the pigeon, but here is another: Mr. Eaton, after describing a comparatively new variety, namely, the Archangel, remarks, “What fanciers intend doing with this bird I am at a loss to know, whether they intend to breed it down to the tumbler’s head and beak, or carry it out to the carrier’s head and beak; leaving it as they found it, is not progressing.” Ferguson, speaking of fowls, says, “their peculiarities, whatever they may be, must necessarily be fully developed: a little peculiarity forms nought but ugliness, seeing it violates the existing laws of symmetry.” So Mr. Brent, in discussing the merits of the sub-varieties of the Belgian canary-bird, remarks, “Fanciers always go to extremes; they do not admire indefinite properties.”[[58]]
This principle, which necessarily leads to divergence of character, explains the present state of various domestic races. We can thus see how it is that racehorses and dray-horses, greyhounds and mastiffs, which are opposed to each other in every character,—how varieties so distinct as Cochin-china fowls and bantams, or carrier-pigeons with very long beaks, and tumblers with excessively short beaks, have been derived from the same stock. As each breed is slowly improved, the inferior varieties are first neglected and finally lost. In a few cases, by the aid of old records, or from intermediate varieties still existing in countries where other fashions have prevailed, we are enabled partially to trace the graduated changes through which certain breeds have passed. Selection, whether methodical or unconscious, always tending towards an extreme point, together with the neglect and slow extinction of the intermediate and less-valued forms, is the key which unlocks the mystery of how man has produced such wonderful results.
In a few instances selection, guided by utility for a single purpose, has led to convergence of character. All the improved and different races of the pig, as Nathusius has well shown,[[59]] closely approach each other in character, in their shortened legs and muzzles, their almost hairless, large, rounded bodies, and small tusks. We see some degree of convergence in the similar outline of the body in well-bred cattle belonging to distinct races.[[60]] I know of no other such cases.
Continued divergence of character depends on, and is indeed a clear proof, as previously remarked, of the same parts continuing to vary in the same direction. The tendency to mere general variability or plasticity of organisation can certainly be inherited, even from one parent, as has been shown by Gärtner and Kölreuter, in the production of varying hybrids from two species, of which one alone was variable. It is in itself probable that, when an organ has varied in any manner, it will again vary in the same manner, if the conditions which first caused the being to vary remain, as far as can be judged, the same. This is either tacitly or expressly admitted by all horticulturists: if a gardener observes one or two additional petals in a flower, he feels confident that in a few generations he will be able to raise a double flower, crowded with petals. Some of the seedlings from the weeping Moccas oak were so prostrate that they only crawled along the ground. A seedling from the fastigiate or upright Irish yew is described as differing greatly from the parent-form “by the exaggeration of the fastigiate habit of its branches.”[[61]] Mr. Shirreff, who has been highly successful in raising new kinds of wheat, remarks, “A good variety may safely be regarded as the forerunner of a better one.”[[62]] A great rose-grower, Mr. Rivers, has made the same remark with respect to roses. Sageret,[[63]] who had large experience, in speaking of the future progress of fruit-trees, observes that the most important principle is “that the more plants have departed from their original type, the more they tend to depart from it.” There is apparently much truth in this remark; for we can in no other way understand the surprising amount of difference between varieties in the parts or qualities which are valued, whilst other parts retain nearly their original character.
The foregoing discussion naturally leads to the question, what is the limit to the possible amount of variation in any part or quality, and, consequently, is there any limit to what selection can effect? Will a racehorse ever be reared fleeter than Eclipse? Can our prize-cattle and sheep be still further improved? Will a gooseberry ever weigh more than that produced by “London” in 1852? Will the beet-root in France yield a greater percentage of sugar? Will future varieties of wheat and other grain produce heavier crops than our present varieties? These questions cannot be positively answered; but it is certain that we ought to be cautious in answering them by a negative. In some lines of variation the limit has probably been reached. Youatt believes that the reduction of bone in some of our sheep has already been carried so far that it entails great delicacy of constitution.[[64]] But seeing the great improvement within recent times in our cattle and sheep, and especially in our pigs; seeing the wonderful increase in weight in our poultry of all kinds during the last few years; he would be a bold man who would assert that perfection has been reached. It has often been said that Eclipse never was, and never will be, beaten in speed by any other horse; but on making inquiries I find that the best judges believe that our present racehorses are fleeter.[[65]] The attempt to raise a new variety of wheat more productive than the many old kinds, might have been thought until lately quite hopeless; but this has been effected by Major Hallett, by careful selection. With respect to almost all our animals and plants, those who are best qualified to judge do not believe that the extreme point of perfection has yet been reached even in the characters which have already been carried to a high standard. For instance, the short-faced tumbler-pigeon has been greatly modified; nevertheless, according to Mr. Eaton[[66]] “the field is still as open for fresh competitors as it was one hundred years ago.” Over and over again it has been said that perfection had been attained with our flowers, but a higher standard has soon been reached. Hardly any fruit has been more improved than the strawberry, yet a great authority remarks,[[67]] “it must not be concealed that we are far from the extreme limits at which we may arrive.”
No doubt there is a limit beyond which the organisation cannot be modified compatibly with health or life. The extreme degree of fleetness, for instance, of which a terrestrial animal is capable, may have been acquired by our present racehorses; but as Mr. Wallace has well remarked,[[68]] the question that interests us, “is not whether indefinite and unlimited change in any or all directions is possible, but whether such differences as do occur in nature could have been produced by the accumulation of varieties by selection.” And in the case of our domestic productions, there can be no doubt that many parts of the organisation, to which man has attended, have been thus modified to a greater degree than the corresponding parts in the natural species of the same genera or even families. We see this in the form and size of our light and heavy dogs or horses,—in the beak and many other characters of our pigeons,—in the size and quality of many fruits,—in comparison with the species belonging to the same natural groups.