Notes on the History of Argentine Independence

by Charles W. Whittemore

Montevideo at first apparently supported the May revolution of Buenos Aires, but shortly afterwards changed its attitude, recognized the authority of the Regency at Cádiz, and though its subsequent history has many points of contact with that of the Argentine, it never again became a component part of the nation. The pure Spanish element was stronger in Montevideo than in Buenos Aires, where the creoles dominated.

It should be noted that up to here, no mention has been made of a Declaration of Independence. Indeed none was made for over six years or until July 9, 1816 at Tucumán. The May movement was a revolt against Regency tyranny, an assertion that the colony should be locally even though temporarily autonomous. The Argentine intellectuals argued that Spain had ceased to exist as an authority over America, and that during the King's captivity the Colony and not the Regency would assume the Royal prerogatives; but there was no disposition to deny the King's eventual overlordship. The Provisional Council under the Presidency of Saavedra installed itself in the Fortress on May 25th. 1810, and swore to preserve the country under the sceptre of Ferdinand VII and to observe the laws of the kingdom. Although governing as an autonomous body, it always invoked the name and authority of the King, a rather anomalous position. The expeditions to Upper Perú under Balcarce and to Paraguay under Belgrano used the flag of Spain, and the same emblem daily flew over the Fortress and city of Buenos Aires for three years. It was not until 1813 that the oath of allegiance to the King was abolished, and all Spanish civil, military and ecclesiastical employees were removed from office.

Belgrano had chafed under the use of the Spanish flag. Acting on his own initiative, he had lined up his troops on February 27, 1812, on the heights of Rosario overlooking the river, and made them swear allegiance to a new flag of his own designing, a celeste and white tri-bar. For this he was reprimanded by the Government. A few months later, on the second anniversary of May 25th., as Commander of the Army to Upper Perú, he had troops again swear allegiance to the same flag in his camp near Jujuy; and for a third time, on February 13, 1813, on the banks of the river still called "Río del Juramento", in front of the Spanish Army, one week before he won the battle of Salta, he had his troops repeat their oath to the new flag. One of the final acts of the Tucumán Congress on July 25th. 1816, was to officially adopt as the National emblem of the Argentine, the Belgrano flag, the same one with which we are all familiar.

The year 1813 was fruitful in reforms. The Assembly ordered a general census so as to control elections and to learn the civil, economic and military potentialities of the country; ordered the cessation of obligatory work in the mines and on the ranches by Indians and peons; decreed free commerce in and exportation of grains and cereals; provided for the absolute liberty of foreigners to enter and leave the country, to traffic and to acquire property; restricted in various ways the prerogatives of the Church and of the religious orders; established the liberty of the womb as concerned slaves; and reformed abusive regulations covering tribunals, codes and prisons. A new coat of arms was adopted, on which the Phrygian Cap upheld by clasped hands, symbolizing Grecian Freedom, and the rising sun shedding its morning beams over the great River Plate, replaced the lions and crosses of the Arms of Spain. Lastly and sentimentally the most important, the Assembly adopted the present National Hymn, which was written by the elder Vicente López—"Oid mortales el grito sagrado—Libertad, libertad, libertad". The body which effected these sweeping reforms was presided over by Rodríguez Peña whose illustrious name is still venerated by all Argentines.

In the same way that San Martín dominated the final chapters of the history of Argentine Independence, Belgrano dominated the opening ones. Belgrano was born in Buenos Aires on June 3rd. 1770, being one of the younger of seven brothers. His father was an Italian, a man of means and standing, while his mother was an Argentine lady from Tucumán. He was educated in the San Carlos College in Buenos Aires, afterwards going to Salamanca, Spain, and eventually graduating in 1793 from the University of Valladolid. He became acquainted with French philosophers and teachings, and was a close student of the French Revolution. He returned to Buenos Aires in 1794 to become Permanent Secretary of the Consulate, in which important position he continued until the English invasion of 1806. He emerged with credit from the troublous times which followed and became one of the leading figures in the May revolution. He was free from ambition, gentle and modest, and though lacking the iron qualities needed in times of revolution, had strong principles and an undeviating sense of duty. He was exceeding patient and was most pains-taking in his attention to administrative details. His training had not prepared him to lead armies to combat but when appointed considered it his duty to accept. He went to Paraguay, as we have seen, and lost battles but won a moral victory. He started for Montevideo in 1811 at the head of another expedition, but was recalled by civil strife in Buenos Aires. He was made in 1812 Commander of the Army to Upper Perú, relieving Pueyrredón who subsequently played such a distinguished part in Argentine history. Belgrano's specific orders were to avoid a battle and to retire to Córdoba, instead of which, on his own responsibility, he awaited the Spanish Army at Tucumán and completely defeated it on September 25th. and 26th. 1812. José María Paz, one of the great Argentine military geniuses, who was present as a lieutenant of artillery remarks that while the fighting was on, Belgrano seemed confused and irresolute; quite different from what Mitre says about San Martín whose faculties were never so active nor his mind so clear as when in the midst of battle. Belgrano followed the retreating Spaniards northward and inflicted another and a crushing defeat at Salta on February 20, 1813. As a victor, he was much too magnanimous, for he released the captured army, and allowed it to return to Perú on its individual oath never to again take up arms against the Argentine. The Peruvian Bishops released the Spaniards from their oaths because they had been given to rebels against the King and excommunicants of the Pope. Thereupon the Spanish Army was reorganized and disastrously defeated Belgrano at Vilcapugio on October 1, 1813 and again at Ayohuma on November 12th. 1813. Belgrano was ordered to deliver the remains of his army to San Martín, which he did on January 30th. 1814. This was the first and only time these two great men ever met.

Napoleón abdicated and Ferdinand VII reassumed the throne of Spain in 1814. He at once announced his intention to scourge America with fire and sword as punishment for disloyalty—the days of Pizarro and Cortez were to be outdone. Belgrano and Rivadavia were sent as special commissioners to London to arrange for English protection but were unsuccessful. Rivadavia went over to the Continent where he did loyal but fruitless work, while Belgrano returned to the Argentine, reaching Buenos Aires early in 1816, in time to attend the Congress at Tucumán and there render inestimable service.

When the Tucumán Congress met in March of 1816, the cause of Spanish American independence was practically lost. In 1810 all the colonies had revolted, and between 1814 and 1816, all had been reconquered with the single exception of Buenos Aires. Ferdinand VII had made effective his threat to punish America with fire and sword. In one year (1815) he sent to Perú over 10,000 fully equipped veteran soldiers under the command of an accredited General, Laserna by name; and in November of that year, the Argentine Army of Upper Perú, commanded by Rondeau, was thoroughly defeated at Venta-y-media, and soon after in a rear-guard action, was routed and dispersed at Sipe Sipe. No defense was possible against an invasion from the North. This was when Upper Perú was permanently lost to the Argentine. Another famous Spanish General named Morillo was preparing to sail from Cádiz for the River Plate with a large force of rested and veteran troops; and to crown the desperate situation civil strife had broken out. A horde of bandits from Santa Fe, Entre Ríos and Uruguay was threatening the doors of Buenos Aires like a pack of hungry wolves. Nothing could have been more disheartening than the conditions which confronted the Tucumán Congress when it commenced to deliberate on the fate of the nation.

The glory of saving the situation is principally ascribable to San Martín. This unfathomable man, the enigma of Argentine history, was born on February 25, 1778 in the Province of Corrientes in a town since obliterated. At the age of eight years, after a short primary education in Buenos Aires, he was sent to Madrid to school, where he remained until he was a few months over eleven. He then entered the Spanish army as a cadet, served in Africa against the Moors, in France against the Republic, in the Spanish fleet when defeated by Nelson at St. Vincent, fought against Portugal and again under Wellington during the Penninsula Campaign. In his twenty years service under the Spanish flag, he had had experience on land and by sea, in infantry, cavalry and trenches. In 1811 in Cádiz, he joined the "Lautaro Society", about which reference has already been made, went to London and affiliated with the Mother Lodge, taking in company with Alvear, the fifth and highest degree. About this time, Bolívar of Venezuela, O'Higgins of Chile, and all the other famous liberators became active members in the same Lodge. San Martín and Alvear reached Buenos Aires on the good ship "George Canning" on March 9th. 1812, San Martín being 34 years old while Alvear was only 23. San Martín was without friends or family or fortune, having as his only asset, his successful military career, while Alvear, the son of a wealthy and influential family, stepped immediately into prominence and became a dominant figure in political circles.

San Martín was made a Lt. Colonel in the Argentine Army, that being the grade to which he had risen in the Spanish Army; and he started a school of tactics, discipline and military morality on a plane of efficiency and elevation theretofore unknown in Spanish America. He was a profound believer in the axiom that battles are won in the training camps. His special pride was a regiment of Mounted Grenadiers, for whom he designed the uniform, the same worn today by the stalwart young men who do guard duty in Government House.

The Spaniards held Montevideo and controlled the nearby waters. Raiding parties up the rivers were frequent, one of which destroyed at San Nicolás three small Argentine sloops-of-war; although the operations were usually limited to robbing ranches and villages of cattle and food with which to supply Montevideo. San Martín followed by land one party which eventually disembarked at San Lorenzo, a few miles north of Rosario, where he attacked and defeated it. The battle of San Lorenzo was small in size, the Spanish landing party numbered 250 and San Martín had only 125, but the result was important, for river raiding ceased. It occurred on February 3, 1813, less than a year after San Martín's arrival in Buenos Aires, and won for him considerable fame; so much so that he was selected to take over from Belgrano the command of the Army of Upper Perú after the defeats of Vilcapugio and Ayohuma.