Notes on the History of Argentine Independence

by Charles W. Whittemore

In 1814, the famous Admiral Brown blockaded Montevideo by sea and Alvear attacked by land with 4000 troops which had crossed to Colonia. The Spaniards sailed out on May 16th. to meet the Argentines, but by strategy Brown got between them and land and completely destroyed their fleet. Alvear laid siege to Montevideo and took it by assault on June 22nd. This was an important victory, for it gave control of the sea and rivers to the Argentine, and lessened the danger of attacks on Buenos Aires by expeditions from Spain.

San Martín became convinced that the conquest of Lower Perú through Upper Perú was impossible—that only a defensive warfare could be successfully waged in the north, and that the real road to Lima was via Chile. He kept his opinion secret, but pleading ill-health asked for the post of Governor of the Province of Cuyo with headquarters in Mendoza. He was given this appointment in August, 1814, and upon arrival began to organize from the limited means at his command what he subsequently called the "Army of the Andes". He worked on this for two years, hiding his plan from everybody as far as he could. At the end of that period, when the Tucumán Congress inaugurated its labors, San Martín was one of the dominant figures in the Argentine. It is hard to understand how he acquired this prestige, for his only military exploit in the Argentine was the battle of San Lorenzo, and we have seen how small were the proportions of that event. His command of the Army of Upper Perú had not been marked by anything of importance, and he had voluntarily sought out a distant and little visited point, away from the main lines of travel and segregated from what were considered the seats of war. Yet in 1816, he was one of the greatest moral influences in the country. He did not attend the Tucumán Congress, although the Presidency of it would have been his for the asking. His mouthpiece was Godoy Cruz, and his written advice and instruction to that faithful representative afford much of the existing illuminating information covering the period.

We have seen how disheartening the general situation was at the time Congress convened. San Martín wrote to Godoy Cruz:—"What steps should be taken to save us? I know what they should be and Congress must apply them in the interest of public welfare, but if such steps are not taken during this year (1816) I fail to see any remedy. Everything will have ended". He allowed his secret to be known to a few friends. Perú must be attacked through Chile. "Until we have taken Lima", he said, "the war will not end". He, through Godoy Cruz and Belgrano in person, constantly urged a declaration of independence. Members argued that before making such declaration, the form of Government to be adopted should be agreed upon, and marked differences of opinion were expressed regarding National authority and Provincial rights. "I die every time I hear Federation mentioned" said San Martín to Godoy Cruz. "If in a government already constituted and in a country educated, inhabited, artistic, agricultural and commercial (I speak of North America) difficulties in the conduct of the last war with the English (War of 1812) arose from the Federation, what would happen to us who lack these advantages? If with all the Provinces and their united resources we are weak, what would happen if each one was separated from the rest?" San Martín and Belgrano continued to insist that the declaration ought to be made. Congress had been in session for over three months, and no decision had been reached. "Is it not ridiculous", said San Martín to Godoy Cruz, "that we coin money, have our national flag and shield, and even make war on the sovereign to whom it is said we belong, and do not declare our independence. The enemy treats us as insurgents, and with much reason". On July 6th. Belgrano made a long and important speech, and three days later—July 9th. 1816, the declaration was made, "Truly", exclaims Mitre, "San Martín and Belgrano were the real founders of Argentine Independence".

Again San Martín wrote to Godoy Cruz, "Congress had made a master-stroke by the declaration of independence. Only I would have desired that it had made an exposition of the just motives we Americans have in emancipating ourselves".

There was a general agreement among the Argentine statesmen of the period that a constitutional monarchy was the form of Government best suited to the needs of the country. Great Britain was the model to be copied, self-governing Britain which had emerged stronger than ever from the tempest of revolution in Europe that followed the upheaval in France. Loyalty to an Argentine Crown would unify the divergent elements and end the civil strife which had commenced within a year after the May revolution and whose end no one could foresee. In 1814, Rivadavia, as Argentine Commissioner to Europe, saw Ferdinand VII and as a solution of the trouble between Spain and the Argentine intimated that a son of this monarch might be called to Buenos Aires and made King. Soon after Belgrano's return from England in 1816, he wrote Rivadavia who was still in Europe. "The public is generally favorable to a constitutional monarchy, although opinions are divided between Incas and Bourbons". Belgrano had worked out a plan under which a descendant of the Peruvian Inca was to be crowned King of the River Plate to rule under the guidance of a Council of Regency and the seat of government was to be the ancient city of Cuzco. This was to be a real American Kingdom. Rivadavia favored the selection of a European Prince with Buenos Aires as seat of Government, in order to stimulate contact with the outside world. Both plans had partizans and both were discussed at the Tucumán Congress, but when put to a vote, the Belgrano project was formally approved. Today the plan seems so fantastic that it appears incredible it ever received serious consideration. The great majority of the delegates wanted a monarchy; "Where there is no subordination, there is no government", wrote Rivadavia, and the details were secondary. San Martín approved of the Inca project, as he would have approved of anything that promised internal quiet, but on condition that the Regency be limited in number:

"If the Regency is composed of more than one person", he wrote, "everything is paralysed and the Devil takes us. In effect, we only have to change the title of our Director, and we have a Regent". Pueyrredón had been elected Supreme Director on May 3rd. 1816, and had undefined but practically dictatorial powers. Three years later (in 1819) another Congress sitting in Buenos Aires approved in secret session a project to bring a King from England and looked to France for support. The leaders had a profound lack of confidence in the popular capacity for self-government, yet in spite of this, the public feeling was inarticulately and incoherently inclined to a Republic, and due to this unspoken pressure, in the end nothing came of the monarchical plans.

Spain and Portugal in Europe, Brazil and the Argentine in South America, were always inharmonious neighbors, even when allied, which was only occasionally for they were more frequently at war. Carlota, a sister of Ferdinand VII, married the Portuguese Prince Regent who lived at Rio, and planned to rule both Brazil and the River Plate. Brazil became an independent kingdom on May 13, 1816, and in the same year Montevideo separated itself from Buenos Aires, with which it had been connected since Alvear and Brown took it from the Spanish in 1814. Brazil captured Montevideo in 1817 and held it for ten years, thus bringing a new danger to the doors of Buenos Aires.

After the Tucumán Congress, San Martín came up from Mendoza and met Pueyrredón on July 15, 1816, at Córdoba. As in all the San Martín conferences this one was surrounded by mystery, but it is known that among other things Pueyrredón approved of San Martín's plans to attack the Spaniards in Chile, and promised his aid.

San Martín returned to Mendoza, and completed his preparations. He brought back word that the Supreme Director intended to liberate all slaves, and suggested that owners anticipate the act of emancipation and turn their slaves into the army. By this means he added 710 colored troops to his infantry, that being the branch of service he desired to strengthen. He found a practical chemist and made powder locally. He discovered a young priest, Fray Beltrán, with a turn for mechanics, and made him chief of ordnance. Beltrán not only made rifles and cast cannon, but invented successful devices for transporting heavy and cumbrous articles over the rugged Andes. Shoe-makers and harness-makers and clothes-makers, and the makers of all the rest of the multitudinous articles required by an army, were found or improvised. San Martín needed mounts for the cavalry, and he induced local ranchmen to sell him horses at six "pesos" each, payable in script acceptable at the local Custom House. He obtained 900 head.