In 1965 the U. S. Navy conducted a 45-day experiment in its “Man-In-The-Sea” program in which 10 aquanauts lived and worked 205 feet below the surface of the sea off La Jolla, California. Their undersea base was Sealab II shown at her christening.
Sealab II shown during final checkout before descent. The aquanauts conducted experimental salvage operations, marine research, and underwent a series of physiological and human performance tests.
NUCLEAR ENERGY’S ROLE
The role of nuclear energy in the study, exploration, and utilization of the world ocean is best defined by citing the specific oceanographic interests of the U. S. Atomic Energy Commission (AEC): Development of better instruments and devices for work and study in the ocean, development of ever-stronger national sea power, conversion of seawater to fresh water, possible modification of ocean boundaries, purely scientific studies to advance knowledge, and, indirectly at least, improving the state of oceanographic engineering. Among the technological products of the nuclear age are radionuclides, neutron sources and other radiation sources, radioisotope heat and electric generators, and nuclear reactors. All these are applied to ocean-related endeavors.
Several divisions of the AEC have important oceanic interests. These range from pure oceanographic research to development of specific instruments, nuclear reactors, radioisotopic power sources, and other devices for use in or under the ocean. The AEC also conducts extensive marine environmental studies to monitor the effects or ensure the safety of specific projects involving nuclear energy. A statistical summary of specific AEC programs in oceanography is shown in Table I on [page 14].
Radionuclides in the Sea
Before we can follow the atom down into the sea, we must understand something about the potentials, both good and bad, of this incursion of one of our most advanced technologies into one of earth’s least understood environments. This adventurous probing has ramifications for studying both man-produced radioactivity in the sea and the ocean itself as an uncontaminated environment.
| TABLE I | ||
|---|---|---|
| AEC OCEANOGRAPHY PROGRAM | 1968 Expenditures Estimate | |
| Research Activities | ||
| Division of Biology and Medicine | $4,000,000 | |
| Studies of uptake, concentration, distribution and effects of radioisotopes on marine life, of geochemical cycling of elements, and of geophysical diffusion and transport. | ||
| Division of Research | 25,000 | |
| Geological dating of corals and other marine and terrestrial materials. | ||
| Division of Isotopes Development | 190,000 | |
| Radioisotope applications to devices for marine systems, such as current meters, analysis and recovery of sedimentary minerals, and underwater sound transmission. | ||
| Division of Reactor Development and Technology | 197,000 | |
| Studies of factors affecting dissolution and dispersal of accidentally released radionuclides, and site evaluations. | ||
| Division of Space Nuclear Systems | 275,000 | |
| Nuclear power sources for aerospace applications. | ||
| Division of Military Applications | 850,000 | |
| Ocean environmental observation and prediction. | ||
| Total—Research Activities | 5,537,000 | |
| Engineering Activities | ||
| Division of Reactor Development and Technology | 5,900,000 | |
| Radioisotope and reactor power development. | ||
| Division of Naval Reactors | 1,320,000 | |
| Deep submergence research vehicle. | ||
| Total —Engineering Activities | 7,220,000 | |
| Total—ABC Oceanographic Activities | 12,757,000 | |
Radionuclides (radioactive atoms) can find their way into the sea from natural radiation sources or from nuclear energy operations undertaken by the United States and other countries since 1945. Specific man-made sources in the past may have included nuclear weapons tested in the atmosphere and under water, the cooling water and wastes of nuclear reactors, laboratories and nuclear-powered ships, containers of radioactive waste disposed of at sea[5], radioisotope energy devices, and intentional injection of radioisotope tracers for scientific research. In the future, they may also include reentry from space of upper-stage nuclear rockets or satellite-borne nuclear energy sources.