There have been many instances, in Egypt, of welees afflicting themselves by austerities similar to those which are often practised by devotees in India. At the present time there is living, in Cairo, a welee who has placed an iron collar round his neck, and chained himself to a wall of his chamber; and it is said that he has been in this state more than thirty years: but some persons[persons] assert that he has often been seen to cover himself over with a blanket, as if to sleep, and that the blanket has been removed immediately after, and nobody found beneath it! Stories of this kind are related and believed by persons who, in many respects, are endowed by good sense; and to laugh, or express discredit, on hearing them, would give great offence. I was lately told that a certain welee being beheaded, for a crime of which he was not guilty, his head spoke after it was cut off;[[359]] and, of another decapitated under similar circumstances, that his blood traced upon the ground, in Arabic characters, the following declaration of his innocence—“I am a welee of God; and have died a martyr.”
It is a very remarkable trait in the character of the people of Egypt and other countries of the East, that Muslims, Christians, and Jews adopt each other’s superstitions, while they abhor the more rational doctrines of each other’s faiths. In sickness, the Muslim sometimes employs Christian and Jewish priests to pray for him: the Christians and Jews, in the same predicament, often called in Muslim saints for the like purpose. Many Christians are in the frequent habit of visiting certain Muslim saints here; kissing their hands; begging their prayers, counsels, or prophecies; and giving them money and other presents.
Though their prophet disclaimed the power of performing miracles, the Muslims attribute to him many; and several miracles are still, they say, constantly or occasionally performed for his sake, as marks of the Divine favour and honour. The pilgrims who have visited El-Medeeneh relate that there is seen every night, a ray or column of faint light rising from the cupola over the grave of the Prophet to a considerable height, apparently to the clouds, or, as some say, to Paradise; but that the observer loses sight of it when he approaches very near the tomb.[[360]] This is one of the most remarkable of the miracles which are related as being still witnessed. On my asking one of the most grave and sensible of all my Muslim friends here, who had been on a pilgrimage, and visited El-Medeeneh, whether this assertion were true, he averred that it was; that he had seen it every night of his stay in that city; and he remarked that it was a most striking and impressive proof of God’s favour and honour for “our lord Mohammad.” I did not presume to question the truth of what he asserted himself to have seen; nor to suggest that the great number of lights kept burning every night in the mosque might produce this effect; but to judge whether this might be the case, I asked my friend to describe to me the construction of the apartment of the tomb, its cupola, etc. He replied that he did not enter it, nor the Kaabah at Mekkeh, partly from his being in a state of excessive nervous excitement (from his veneration for those holy buildings, but particularly for the former, which almost affected him with a kind of hysteric fit), and partly because, being of the sect of the Hanafees, he held it improper, after he should have stepped upon such sacred ground, ever again to run the risk of defiling his feet by walking barefooted: consequently, he would have been obliged always to wear leather socks, or mezz, within his outer shoes; which, he said, he could not afford to do. The pilgrims also assert that, in approaching El-Medeeneh, from the distance of three days’ journey, or more, they always see a flickering lightning in the direction of the sacred city, which they believe to proceed from the Prophet’s tomb. They say that however they turn, they always see this lightning in the direction of El-Medeeneh. There is something strikingly poetical in this and in the former statement.
A superstitious veneration, and honours unauthorized by the Kur-án or any of the Traditions, are paid by all sects of Muslims, excepting the Wahhábees, to deceased saints, even more than to those who are living; and more particularly by the Muslims of Egypt.[[361]] Over the graves of most of the more celebrated saints are erected large and handsome mosques; over that of a saint of less note (one who, by a life of sanctity or hypocrisy, has acquired the reputation of being a welee, or devout sheykh) is constructed a small, square, white-washed building, crowned with a cupola. There is generally, directly over the vault in which the corpse is deposited, an oblong monument of stone or brick (called “tarkeebeh”) or wood (in which case it is called “táboot”); and this is usually covered with silk or linen, with some words from the Kur-án worked upon it, and surrounded by a railing or screen, of wood or bronze, called “maksoorah.” Most of the sanctuaries of saints in Egypt are tombs; but there are several which only contain some inconsiderable relic of the person to whom they are dedicated, and there are a few which are mere cenotaphs. The most sacred of all these sanctuaries is the mosque of the Hasaneyn, in which the head of the martyr El-Hoseyn, the son of the Imám ’Alee, and grandson of the Prophet, is said to be buried. Among others but little inferior in sanctity, are the mosques of the seyyideh Zeyneb (daughter of the Imám[Imám] ’Alee, and grand-daughter of the Prophet), the seyyideh Sekeeneh (daughter of the Imám[Imám] El-Hoseyn), the seyyideh Nefeeseh (great grand-daughter of the Imám El-Hasan), and the Imám Esh-Sháfe’ee, already mentioned as the author of one of the four great Muslim sects, that to which most of the people of Cairo belong. The buildings above mentioned, with the exception of the last two, are within the metropolis; the last but one is within a southern suburb of Cairo, and the last, in the great southern cemetery.
The Egyptians occasionally visit these and other sanctuaries of their saints, either merely with the view of paying honour to the deceased, and performing meritorious acts for the sake of these venerated persons, which they believe will call down a blessing on themselves, or for the purpose of urging some special petition, as for the restoration of health, or for the gift of offspring, etc.; in the persuasion that the merits of the deceased will insure a favourable reception of the prayers which they offer up in such consecrated places. The generality of the Muslims regard their deceased saints as intercessors with the Deity, and make votive offerings to them. The visitor, on arriving at the tomb, should greet the deceased with the salutation of peace, and should utter the same salutation on entering the burial-ground; but I believe that few persons observe this latter custom. In the former case, the visitor should front the face of the dead, and consequently turn his back to the kibleh. He walks round the maksoorah or monument from left to right, and recites the Fát’hah, inaudibly, or in a very low voice, before its door, or before each of its four sides. Sometimes a longer chapter of the Kur-án than the first (or Fát’hah) is recited afterwards, and sometimes a “khatmeh” (or recitation of the whole of the Kur-án) is performed on such an occasion. These acts of devotion are generally performed for the sake of the saint, though merit is likewise believed to reflect upon the visitor who makes a recitation. He usually says at the close of this, “[Extol] the perfection of thy Lord, the Lord of Might, exempting Him from that which they [that is, the unbelievers] ascribe to Him” (namely, the having a son, or a partaker of his godhead); and adds, “And peace be on the Apostles, and praise be to God, the Lord of all creatures. O God, I have transferred the merit of what I have recited from the excellent Kur-án to the person to whom this place is dedicated,” or—“to the soul of this welee.” Without such a declaration, or an intention to the same effect, the merit of the recital belongs solely to the person who performs it. After this recital, the visitor, if it be his desire, offers up any prayer for temporal or spiritual blessings, generally using some such form as this—“O God, I conjure Thee by the Prophet, and by him to whom this place is dedicated, to grant me such and such blessings;” or “My burdens be on God and on thee, O thou to whom this place is dedicated.” In doing this, some persons face any side of the maksoorah. It is said to be more proper to face the maksoorah and the kibleh; but I believe that the same rule should be observed in this case as in the salutation. During the prayer the hands are held as in the private supplications after the ordinary prayers of every day, and afterwards they are drawn down the face. Many of the visitors kiss the threshold of the building, and the walls, windows, maksoorah, etc. This, however, the more strict disapprove, asserting it to be an imitation of a custom of the Christians. The rich, and persons in easy circumstances, when they visit the tomb of a saint, distribute money or bread to the poor, and often give money to one or more water-carriers to distribute water to the poor and thirsty, for the sake of the saint.[[362]] There are particular days of the week on which certain tombs are more generally visited; thus, the mosque of Hasaneyn is mostly visited by men on Tuesday, and by women on Saturday; that of the seyyideh Zeyneb, on Wednesday; that of the Imám Esh-Sháfe’ee, on Friday. On these occasions it is a common custom for the male visitors to take with them sprigs of myrtle. They place some of these on the monument, or on the floor within the maksoorah, and take back the remainder, which they distribute to their friends. The poor sometimes place “khoos” (or palm leaves), as most persons do upon the tombs of their friends and relations. The women of Cairo, instead of the myrtle or palm-leaves, often place roses, flowers of the henna-tree, jasmine, etc.
At almost every village in Egypt is the tomb of some favourite or patron saint, which is generally visited on a particular day of the week by many of the inhabitants, chiefly women, some of whom bring thither bread, which they leave there for poor travellers, or any other persons. Some also place small pieces of money in these tombs. These gifts are offerings to the sheykh, or given for his sake. Another custom common among the peasants is, to make votive sacrifices at the tombs of their sheykhs. For instance, a man makes a vow (“nedr”) that if he recover from a sickness, or obtain a son, or any other specific object of desire, he will give to a certain sheykh (deceased), a goat, or a lamb, or a sheep, etc. If he attain his object, he sacrifices the animal which he has vowed at the tomb of the sheykh, and makes a feast with its meat for any persons who may choose to attend. Having given the animal to the saint, he thus gives to the latter the merit of feeding the poor. Little kids are often vowed as future sacrifices, and have the right ear slit, or are marked in some other way. It is not uncommon, too, without any definite view but that of obtaining general blessings, to make these vows; and sometimes a peasant vows that he will sacrifice, for the sake of a saint, a calf which he possesses, as soon as it is full-grown and fatted. It is let loose, by consent of all his neighbours, to pasture where it will, even in fields of young wheat; and at last, after it has been sacrificed, a public feast is made with its meat. Many a large bull is thus given away.
Almost every celebrated saint, deceased, is honoured by an anniversary birth-day festival, which is called “moolid,” or, more properly, “mólid.” On the occasions of such festivals, many persons visit the tomb, both as a duty and as a supposed means of obtaining a special blessing; fikees are hired to recite the Kur-án, for the sake of the saint; fakeers often perform zikrs; and the people living in the neighbourhood of the tomb hang lamps before their doors, and devote half the night to such pleasures as those of smoking, sipping coffee, and listening to story-tellers at the coffee-shops, or to the recitals of the Kur-án and the zikrs. I have now a cluster of lamps hanging before my door, in honour of the moolid of a sheykh who is buried near the house in which I am living. Even the native Christians often hang up lamps on these occasions. The festivities often continue several days. The most famous moolids celebrated in Cairo, next to that of the Prophet, are those of the Hasaneyn and the seyyideh Zeyneb, accounts of which will be found in a subsequent chapter on the periodical public festivals, etc., of the people of Egypt. Most of the Egyptians not only expect a blessing to follow their visiting the tomb of a celebrated saint, but they also dread that some misfortune will befall them if they neglect this act. Thus, while I am writing these lines, an acquaintance of mine is suffering from an illness which he attributes to his having neglected, for the last two years, to attend the festivals of the seyyid Ahmad El-Bedawee, at Tanta, this being the period of one of these festivals. The tomb of this saint attracts almost as many visitors, at the periods of the great annual festivals, from the metropolis, and from various parts of Lower Egypt, as Mekkeh does pilgrims from the whole of the Muslim world. Three moolids are celebrated in honour of him every year—one, about the tenth of the Coptic month of Toobeh (17th or 18th of January); the second, at or about the Vernal Equinox;[[363]] and the third, or great moolid, about a month after the Summer Solstice (or about the middle of the Coptic month of Ebeeb), when the Nile has risen considerably, but the dams of the canals are not yet cut. Each lasts one week and a day, beginning on a Friday, and ending on the afternoon of the next Friday; and on each night there is a display of fireworks. One week after each of these, is celebrated the moolid of the seyyid Ibráheem Ed-Dasookee, at the town of Dasook, on the east bank of the western branch of the Nile. The seyyid Ibráheem was a very famous saint, next in rank to the seyyid El-Bedawee. These moolids, both of the seyyid El-Bedawee and of the seyyid Ibráheem, are great fairs, as well as religious festivals. At the latter, most of the visitors remain in their boats; and some of the Saadeeyeh darweeshes of Rasheed exhibit their feats with serpents—some carrying serpents with silver rings in their mouths, to prevent their biting; others partly devouring these reptiles alive. The religious ceremonies at both are merely zikrs,[[364]] and recitals of the Kur-án.—It is customary among the Muslims, as it was among the Jews, to rebuild, whitewash, and decorate the tombs of their saints, and occasionally to put a new covering over the tarkeebeh or táboot; and many of them do this from the same pharisaic motives which actuated the Jews.[[365]]
“Darweeshes” are very numerous in Egypt; and some of them who confine themselves to religious exercises, and subsist by alms, are much respected in this country, particularly by the lower orders. Various artifices are employed by persons of this class to obtain the reputation of superior sanctity, and of being endowed with the power of performing miracles. Many of them are regarded as welees.
A direct descendant of Aboo-Bekr, the first Khaleefeh, having the title of “Esh-Sheykh el-Bekree,” and regarded as the representative of that prince, holds authority over all orders of darweeshes in Egypt. The present Sheykh el-Bekree, who is also descended from the Prophet, is Nakeeb el-Ashráf, or chief of the Shereefs.—I may here add that the second Khaleefeh, ’Omar, has likewise his representative, who is the sheykh of the ’Enáneeyeh, or Owlád ’Enán, an order of darweeshes so named from one of their celebrated sheykhs, Ibn-’Enán. ’Osmán has no representative, having left no issue. The representative of ’Alee is called Sheykh es-Sádát,[[366]] or Sheykh of the Seyyids, or Shereefs, a title of less importance than that of Nakeeb of the Shereefs. Each of these three sheykhs is termed the occupant of the “seggádeh” (or prayer carpet) of his great ancestor. So also the sheykh of an order of darweeshes is called the occupant of the seggádeh of the founder of the order.[[367]] The seggádeh is considered as the spiritual throne. There are four great seggádehs of darweeshes in Egypt, which are those of four great orders about to be mentioned.
The most celebrated orders of darweeshes in Egypt are the following:—1. The “Rifá’eeyeh” (in the singular “Rifá’ee”). This order was founded by the seyyid Ahmad Rifá’ah El-Kebeer. Its banners and the turbans of its members are black; or the latter are of a very deep blue woollen stuff, or muslin of a very dark greenish hue. The Rifá’ee darweeshes are celebrated for the performance of many wonderful feats.[[368]] The “’Ilwáneeyeh,” or “Owlád ’Ilwán,” who are a sect of the Rifá’ees, pretend to thrust iron spikes into their eyes and bodies without sustaining any injury; and in appearance they do this, in such a manner as to deceive any person who can believe it possible for a man to do such things in reality. They also break large masses of stone on their chests, eat live coals, glass, etc.; and are said to pass swords completely through their bodies, and packing-needles through both their cheeks, without suffering any pain, or leaving any wound; but such performances are now seldom witnessed. I am told that it was a common practice for a darweesh of this order to hollow out a piece of the trunk of a palm-tree, fill it with rags soaked with oil and tar, then set fire to these contents, and carry the burning mass under his arm in a religious procession (wearing only drawers), the flames curling over his bare chest, back, and head, and apparently doing him no injury. The “Saadeeyeh,” an order founded by the sheykh Saad-ed-Deen El-Gibáwee, are another and more celebrated sect of the Rifá’ees. Their banners are green, and their turbans of the same colour, or of the dark hue of the Rifá’ees in general. There are many darweeshes of this order who handle with impunity live, venomous serpents, and scorpions, and partly devour them. The serpents, however, they render incapable of doing any injury by extracting their venomous fangs; and doubtless they also deprive the scorpions of their poison. On certain occasions (as, for instance, on that of the festival of the birth of the Prophet), the Sheykh of the Saadeeyeh rides on horseback over the bodies of a number of his darweeshes and other persons, who throw themselves on the ground for the purpose; and all assert that they are not injured by the tread of the horse. This ceremony is called the “dóseh.” Many Rifá’ee and Saadee darweeshes obtain their livelihood by going about to charm away serpents from houses. Of the feats of these modern Psylli, an account will be given in another chapter. 2. The “Kádireeyeh,” an order founded by the famous seyyid ’Abd-El-Kádir El-Geelánee. Their banners and turbans are white. Most of the Kádireeyeh of Egypt are fishermen; these, in religious processions, carry upon poles nets of various colours (green, yellow, red, white, etc.), as the banners of their order. 3. The “Ahmedeeyeh,” or order of the seyyid Ahmad El-Bedawee, whom I have lately mentioned. This is a very numerous and highly respected order. Their banners and turbans are red. The “Beiyoomeeyeh” (founded by the seyyid ’Alee El-Beiyoomee), the “Shaaráweeyeh” (founded by the sheykh Esh-Shaaráwee[[369]]), the “Shinnáweeyeh” (founded by the seyyid ’Alee Esh-Shinnáwee), and many other orders, are sects of the Ahmedeeyeh. The Shinnáweeyeh train an ass to perform a strange part in the ceremonies of the last day of the moolid of their great patron saint, the seyyid Ahmad El-Bedawee, at Tanta. The ass, of its own accord, enters the mosque of the seyyid, proceeds to the tomb, and there stands, while multitudes crowd around it, and each person who can approach near enough to it plucks off some of its hair, to use as a charm, until the skin of the poor beast is as bare as the palm of a man’s hand. There is another sect of the Ahmedeeyeh, called “Owlád Nooh,” all young men, who wear “tartoors” (or high caps), with a tuft of pieces of various coloured cloth on the top, wooden swords, and numerous strings of beads, and carry a kind of whip (called “firkilleh”), a thick twist of cords. 4. The “Baráhimeh,” or “Burhámeeyeh,” the order of the seyyid Ibráheem Ed-Dasookee, whose moolid has been mentioned above. Their banners and turbans are green. There are many other classes of darweeshes, some of whom are sects of one or other of the above orders. Among the more celebrated of them are the “Hefnáweeyeh,” the “’Afeefeeyeh,” the “Demirdásheeyeh,” the “Nakshibendeeyeh,” the “Bekreeyeh,” and the “Leyseeyeh.”