The most esteemed of all “hegábs” (or charms) is a “mus-haf” (or copy of the Kur-án). It used to be the general custom of the Turks of the middle and higher orders, and of many other Muslims, to wear a small mus-haf in an embroidered leather or velvet case hung upon the right side by a silk string which passed over the left shoulder: but this custom is not now very common. During my former visit to this country, a respectable Turk, in the military dress, was seldom seen without a case of this description upon his side, though it often contained no hegáb. The mus-haf and other hegábs are still worn by many women; generally enclosed in cases of gold, or of gilt or plain silver. To the former, and to many other charms, most extensive efficacy is attributed; they are esteemed preservatives against disease, enchantment, the evil eye, and a variety of other evils. The charm next in point of estimation to the mus-haf is a book or scroll containing certain chapters of the Kur-án; as the 6th, 18th, 36th, 44th, 55th, 67th and 78th; or some others; generally seven.—Another charm, which is believed to protect the wearer (who usually places it within his cap) from the devil and all evil genii, and many other objects of fear, is a piece of paper inscribed with the following passages from the Kur-án.[[372]] “And the preservation of both [heaven and earth] is no burden unto Him. He is the High, the Great” (chap. ii. ver. 256). “But God is the best protector; and He is the most merciful of those who show mercy” (chap. xii., ver. 64). “They watch him by the command of God” (chap. xiii., ver. 12). “And we guard them from every devil driven away with stones” (chap. xv., ver. 17). “And a guard against every rebellious devil” (chap. xxxvii., ver. 7). “And a guard. This is the decree of the Mighty, the Wise” (chap. lxi., ver. 11). “And God encompasseth them behind. Verily it is a glorious Kur-án, [written] on a preserved tablet” (chap. lxxxv., ver. 20, 21, 22).—The ninety-nine names, or epithets, of God, comprising all the divine attributes, if frequently repeated, and written on a paper, and worn on the person, are supposed to make the wearer a particular object for the exercise of all the beneficent attributes.—In like manner it is believed that the ninety-nine names, or titles, etc., of the Prophet, written upon anything, compose a charm which (according to his own assertion, as recorded by his cousin and son-in-law the Imám ’Alee) will, if placed in a house, and frequently read from beginning to end, keep away every misfortune, pestilence and all diseases, infirmity, the envious eye, enchantment, burning, ruin, anxiety, grief, and trouble. After repeating each of these names, the Muslim adds, “God favour and preserve him!”[[373]]—Similar virtues are ascribed to a charm composed of the names of the “As-háb el-Kahf” (or Companions of the Cave, also called the Seven Sleepers), together with the name of their dog.[[374]] These names are sometimes engraved in the bottom of a drinking-cup, and more commonly on the round tray of tinned copper which, placed on a stool, forms the table for dinner, supper, etc.—Another charm, supposed to have similar efficacy, is composed of the names of those paltry articles of property which the Prophet left at his decease. These relics[[375]] were two “sebhahs” (or rosaries), his “mus-haf” (in unarranged fragments), his “muk-hul′ah” (or[(or] the vessel in which he kept the black powder with which he painted the edges of his eyelids), two “seggádehs” (or prayer carpets), a hand-mill, a staff, a tooth-stick, a suit of clothes,[[376]] the ewer which he used in ablution, a pair of sandals, a “burdeh” (or a kind of woollen covering),[[377]] three mats, a coat of mail, a long woollen coat, his white mule “ed-duldul,” and his she-camel “el-’adba.”—Certain verses of the Kur-án are also written upon slips of paper, and worn upon the person as safeguards against various evils, and to procure restoration to health, love and friendship, food, etc. These and other charms, enclosed in cases of gold, silver, tin, leather, or silk, etc., are worn by many of the modern Egyptians, men, women, and children.
It is very common to see children in this country with a charm against the evil eye,[[378]] enclosed in a case, generally of a triangular form, attached to the top of the cap; and horses often have similar appendages. The Egyptians take many precautions against the evil eye; and anxiously endeavour to avert its imagined consequences. When a person expresses what is considered improper or envious admiration of anything, he is generally reproved by the individual whom he has thus alarmed, who says to him, “Bless the Prophet!” and if the envier obeys, saying, “O God, favour him!” no ill effects are apprehended. It is considered very improper for a person to express his admiration of another, or of any object which is not his own property, by saying, “God preserve us!”[[379]] “How pretty!” or, “Very pretty!” The most approved expression in such cases is “Má sháa-lláh!” (or “What God willeth [cometh to pass]!]”[pass]!]”]); which implies both admiration and submission to, or approval of, the will of God. A person who has exclaimed “How pretty!” or used similar words, is often desired to say, rather, “Má[Má] sháa-lláh!” as well as to bless the Prophet. In the second chapter of this work a remarkable illustration has been given of the fear which mothers in Egypt entertain of the effect of the evil eye upon their children. It is the custom in this country, when a person takes the child of another into his arms, to say, “In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful!” and, “O God, favour our lord Mohammad!” and then to add, “Má sháa-lláh!” It is also a common custom of the people of Egypt, when admiring a child, to say, “I seek refuge with the Lord of the Day-break for thee!” alluding to the Chapter of the Day-break (the 113th chapter of the Kur-án); in the end of which, protection is implored against the mischief of the envious. The parents, when they see a person stare at, or seem to envy their young offspring, sometimes cut off a piece of the skirts of his clothes, burn it with a little salt (to which some add coriander-seed, alum, etc.), and fumigate with the smoke, and sprinkle with the ashes, the child or children. This, it is said, should be done a little before sunset, when the sun becomes red.
Alum is very generally used, in the following manner, by the people of Egypt, to counteract the effects of the evil eye. A piece of about the size of a walnut is placed upon burning coals, and left until it has ceased to bubble. This should be done a short time before sunset; and the person who performs the operation should repeat three times, while the alum is burning, the first chapter of the Kur-án, and the last three chapters of the same; all of which are very short. On taking the alum off the fire, it will be found (we are told) to have assumed the form of the person whose envy or malice has given occasion for this process: it is then to be pounded, put into some food, and given to a black dog to be eaten. I have once seen this done, by a man who suspected his wife of having looked upon him with an evil eye; and in this case, the alum did assume a form much resembling that of a woman, in what the man declared was a peculiar posture in which his wife was accustomed to sit. But the shape which the alum takes depends almost entirely on the disposition of the coals; and can hardly be such that the imagination may not see in it some resemblance to a human being.—Another supposed mode of obviating the effects of the envious eye is, to prick a paper with a needle, saying, at the same time, “This is the eye of such a one, the envier;” and then to burn the paper.—Alum is esteemed a very efficacious charm against the evil eye: sometimes, a small, flat piece of it, ornamented with tassels, is hung to the top of a child’s cap. A tassel of little shells and beads is also used in the same manner, and for the same purpose. The small shells called cowries are especially considered[considered] preservatives against the evil eye; and hence, as well as for the sake of ornament, they are often attached to the trappings of camels, horses and other animals, and sometimes to the caps of children. Such appendages are evidently meant to attract the eye to themselves, and so to prevent observation and envy of the object which they are designed to protect.
To counteract the effects of the evil eye, many persons in Egypt, but mostly women, make use of what is called “mey’ah mubárakah” (or blessed storax), which is a mixture of various ingredients that will be mentioned below, prepared and sold only during the first ten days of the month of Moharram. During this period we often see, in the streets of Cairo, men carrying about this mixture of mey’ah, etc., for sale, and generally crying some such words as the following:—“Mey’ah mubárakah! A new year and blessed ’A’shoora![[380]] The most blessed of years [may this be] to the believers! Yá mey’ah mubárakah!” The man who sells it bears upon his head a round tray, covered with different coloured sheets of paper—red, yellow, etc., upon which is placed the valuable mixture. In the middle is a large heap of “tifl” (or refuse) of a dark reddish material for dyeing, mixed with a little “mey’ah” (or storax), coriander seed, and seed of the fennel-flower: round this large heap are smaller heaps: one consisting of salt dyed blue with indigo; another, of salt dyed red; a third, of salt dyed yellow; a fourth, of “sheeh” (a kind of wormwood); a fifth, of dust of “libán” (or frankincense). These are all the ingredients of the “mey’ah mubárakah.” The seller is generally called into the house of the purchaser. Having placed his tray before him, and received a plate, or a piece of paper, in which to put the quantity to be purchased, he takes a little from one heap, then from another, then from a third, and so on, until he has taken some from each heap; after which, again and again, he takes an additional quantity from each kind. While he does this, he chants a long spell, generally commencing thus:—“In the name of God! and by God! There is no conqueror that conquereth God, the Lord of the East and the West: we are all His servants: we must acknowledge His unity: His unity is an illustrious attribute.” After some words on the virtues of salt, he proceeds to say:—“I charm thee from the eye of girl, sharper than a spike; and from the eye of woman, sharper than a pruning-knife; and from the eye of boy, more painful than a whip; and from the eye of man, sharper than a chopping-knife;” and so on. Then he relates how Solomon deprived the evil eye of its influence; and afterwards enumerates every article of property that the house is likely to contain, and that the person who purchases his wonderful mixture may be conjectured to possess; all of which he charms against the influence of the eye. Many of the expressions which he employs in this spell are very ridiculous, words being introduced merely for the sake of rhyme. The mey’ah mubárakah, a handful of which may be purchased for five faddahs,[[381]] is treasured up by the purchaser during the ensuing year; and whenever it is feared that a child or other person is affected by the evil eye, a little of it is thrown upon some burning coals in a chafing-dish; and the smoke which results is generally made to ascend upon the supposed sufferer.
It is a custom among the higher and middle classes in Cairo, on the occasion of a marriage, to hang chandeliers in the street before the bridegroom’s house; and it often happens that a crowd is collected to see a very large and handsome chandelier suspended: in this case it is a common practice to divert the attention of the spectators by throwing down and breaking a large jar, or by some other artifice, lest an envious eye should cause the chandelier to fall. Accidents which confirm the Egyptians in their superstitions respecting the evil eye often occur: for instance, a friend of mine has just related to me that, a short time ago, he saw a camel carrying two very large jars of oil; a woman stopped before it, and exclaimed, “God preserve us! What large jars!” The conductor of the camel did not tell her to bless the Prophet; and the camel, a few minutes after, fell, and broke both the jars and one of its own legs.
While writing these notes on modern Egyptian superstitions, I have been amused by a complaint of one of my Masree[[382]] friends, which will serve to illustrate what I have just stated. “The Básha,” he said, “having, a few days ago, given up his monopoly of the meat, the butchers now slaughter for their own shops; and it is quite shocking to see fine sheep hung up in the streets, quite whole, tail[[383]] and all, before the public eye, so that every beggar who passes by envies them; and one might, therefore, as well eat poison as such meat.” My cook has made the same complaint to me; and, rather than purchase from one of the shops near at hand, takes the trouble of going to one in a distant quarter, kept by a man who conceals his meat from the view of the passengers in the street.
Many of the tradesmen of the metropolis, and of other towns of Egypt, place over their shops (generally upon the hanging shutter which is turned up in front) a paper inscribed with the name of God, or that of the Prophet, or both, or the profession of the faith (“There is no deity but God: Mohammad is God’s Apostle”), the words, “In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful,” or some maxim of the Prophet, or a verse of the Kur-án (as, “Verily we have granted thee a manifest victory” [ch. xlviii., ver. 1], and “Assistance from God, and a speedy victory: and do thou bear good tidings to the believers” [ch. lxi., ver. 13]), or an invocation to the Deity, such as, “O Thou Opener [of the doors of prosperity, or subsistence]! O Thou Wise! O Thou Supplier of our wants! O Thou Bountiful!” This invocation is often pronounced by the tradesman when he first opens his shop in the morning, and by the pedestrian vendor of small commodities, bread, vegetables, etc., when he sets out on his daily rounds. It is a custom also among the lower orders to put the first piece of money that they receive in the day to the lips and forehead before putting it in the pocket.
Besides the inscriptions over shops, we often see in Cairo the invocation, “O God!” sculptured over the door of a private house, and the words “The Excellent Creator is the Everlasting,” or, “He is the Excellent Creator, the Everlasting,” painted in large characters upon the door, both as a charm, and to remind the master of the house, whenever he enters it, of his own mortality.[[384]] These words are often inscribed upon the door of a house when its former master, and many or all of its former inhabitants, have been removed by death.
The most approved mode of charming away sickness or disease is to write certain passages of the Kur-án[[385]] on the inner surface of an earthenware cup or bowl; then to pour in some water, and stir it until the writing is quite washed off; when the water, with the sacred words thus infused in it, is to be drunk by the patient. These words are as follow: “And He will heal the breasts of the people who believe” (chap. ix., ver. 14). “O men, now hath an admonition come unto you from your Lord, and a remedy for what is in your breasts” (chap. x., ver. 58). “Wherein is a remedy for men” (chap. xvi., ver. 71). “We send down, of the Kur-án, that which is a remedy and mercy to the believers” (chap. xvii., ver. 84). “And when I am sick He healeth me” (chap. xxii., ver. 80). “Say, It is, to those who believe, a guide and a remedy” (chap. xli., ver. 44). Four of these verses, notwithstanding they are thus used, refer, not to diseases of the body, but of the mind; and another (the third) alludes to the virtues of honey! On my applying to my sheykh (or tutor) to point out to me in what chapters these verses were to be found, he begged me not to translate them into my own language, because the translation of the Kur-án, unaccompanied by the original text, is prohibited: not that he seemed ashamed of the practice of employing these words as a charm, and did not wish my countrymen to be informed of the custom: for he expressed his full belief in their efficacy, even in the case of an infidel patient, provided he had proper confidence in their virtue. “Seeing,” he observed, “that the Prophet (God favour and preserve him!) has said, ‘If thou confide in God, with true confidence, He will sustain thee as He sustaineth the birds.’” I silenced his scruples on the subject of translating these verses by telling him that we had an English translation of the whole of the Kur-án. Sometimes, for the cure of diseases, and to counteract poisons, etc., a draught of water from a metal cup, having certain passages of the Kur-án and talismanic characters and figures engraved in the interior, is administered to the patient. I have a cup of this description, lately given to me[[386]] here (in Cairo), much admired by my Muslim acquaintances. On the exterior is an inscription enumerating its virtues: it is said to possess charms that will counteract all poisons, etc., and the evil eye, and cure “all sicknesses and diseases, excepting the sickness of death.” I have seen here another cup which appeared to have been exactly similar to that above mentioned, but its inscriptions were partly effaced. The secret virtues of the Kur-án are believed to be very numerous. One day, on my refusing to eat of a dish that I feared would do me harm, I was desired to repeat the Soorat Kureysh (106th chapter of the Kur-án) to the end of the words “supplieth them with food against hunger,” and to repeat these last words three times. This, I was assured, would be a certain preventive of any harm that I might have feared.
There are various things which are regarded in the same light as written charms; such as dust from the tomb of the Prophet, water from the sacred well of Zemzem, in the Temple of Mekkeh, and pieces of the black brocade covering of the Kaabeh.[[387]] The water of Zemzem is much valued for the purpose of sprinkling upon grave-clothes.—An Arab, to whom I had given some medicine which had been beneficial to him, in the Sa’eed, during my former visit to this country, heard me inquire for some Zemzem-water (as several boats full of pilgrims on their return from Mekkeh were coming down the Nile), and perhaps thought, from my making this inquiry, that I was a pious Muslim: accordingly, to show his gratitude to me, he gave me what I was seeking to obtain. Having gone to the house of a friend, he returned to my boat, bringing a small bundle, which he opened before me. “Here,” said he, “are some things which I know you will value highly. Here are two tin flasks of the water of Zemzem: one of them you shall have: you may keep it to sprinkle your grave-clothing with it. This is a ‘miswák’ (a tooth-stick) dipped in the water of Zemzem: accept it from me: clean your teeth with it, and they will never ache, nor decay. And here,” he added (showing me three small, oblong and flat cakes, of a kind of greyish earth, each about an inch in length, and stamped with Arabic characters, “In the name of God! Dust of our land [mixed] with the saliva of some of us”), “these are composed of earth from over the grave of the Prophet (God favour and preserve him!): I purchased them myself in the noble tomb, on my return from the pilgrimage: one of them I give to you: you will find it a cure for every disease: the second I shall keep for myself; and the third we will eat together.”—Upon this, he broke in halves one of the three cakes; and we each ate our share. I agreed with him (though I had read the inscription) that it was delicious; and I gladly accepted his presents. I was afterwards enabled to make several additions to my Mekkeh curiosities; comprising a piece of the covering of the Kaabeh, brought from Mekkeh by the sheykh[sheykh] Ibráheem (Burckhardt), and given to me by his legatee ’Osmán. A cake composed of dust from the Prophet’s tomb is sometimes sewed up in a leather case, and worn as an amulet. It is also formed into lumps of the shape and size of a small pear; and hung to the railing or screen which surrounds the monument over the grave of a saint, or to the monument itself, or to the windows or door of the apartment which contains it.