Cyrtoidea
Botryodea
Triradiata
PylobotryidaPodocampida
EradiataMultiradiataSpyroidea
LithocampidaPhormocampidaAndrospyrida
LithobotryidaPodocyrtida
TheocyrtidaPhormocyrtidaTholospyrida
CannobotryidaTripocyrtidaPhormospyrida
SethocyrtidaAnthocyrtida
Tripocalpida
CyrtocalpidaPhænocalpida
Stephoidea
TympanidaZygospyrida
(Spyroidea triradiata)
Tripocalpida
(Cyrtioidea triradiata monocyrtida)
Coronida
Semantida
Cyrtellaria
Cortiniscus
Stephanida
Cortina*Cortinida(Plectellaria)
(Cortina)
PlectaniscusPlagoniscus
Plectoidea
TetraplectaTetraplagiaPlectanida
PlectophoraPlagiacantha
Plagonida
TriplectaTriplagia
Nassoidea
(Nassellida)
Nassella
(Cystidium)
Actissa
Cyrtoidea
Botryodea
Triradiata
PylobotryidaPodocampida
EradiataMultiradiataSpyroidea
LithocampidaPhormocampida
LithobotryidaPodocyrtidaAndrospyrida
TheocyrtidaPhormocyrtidaTholospyrida
CannobotryidaTripocyrtidaPhormospyrida
SethocyrtidaAnthocyrtida
Tripocalpida
CyrtocalpidaPhænocalpida
Zygospyrida
(Spyroidea triradiata)
Tripocalpida
(Cyrtioidea triradiata monocyrtida)
Stephoidea
Tympanida
Cyrtellaria
Coronida
Semantida
Cortiniscus
Stephanida
Cortina*——Cortinida(Plectellaria)
(Cortina)
Plectaniscus——Plagoniscus
Plectoidea
Tetraplecta——TetraplagiaPlectanida
Plectophora——Plagiacantha
Plagonida
Triplecta——Triplagia
Nassoidea
(Nassellida)
Nassella
(Cystidium)
Actissa

181. Plectellaria and Cyrtellaria.—The extensive legion Nassellaria far surpasses the other three legions in the endless variety of its skeletal structures, and owing to the complicated relationships of its numerous families presents no lack of difficult phylogenetic problems. All Nassellaria may be divided first into two main groups or sublegions, Plectellaria and Cyrtellaria; the latter having a complete lattice-shell, the former not. Probably the Cyrtellaria have been polyphyletically developed from several different groups of Plectellaria. These groups are, however, connected in such manifold ways that a monophyletic origin of all the Nassellarian skeletons from one original element is possible. Such a primitive element may have been furnished by any one of three different skeletal parts, the sagittal ring, the basal tripod, and the latticed cephalis (compare pp. [891]-[895], Bütschli, L. N. [40], [41]).

182. Phylogenetic Skeletal Elements of the Nassellaria.—The multiform skeleton of the Nassellaria may be referred in different ways to one of the three above-mentioned structural elements. Each of these (p. [891]) may by itself form the skeleton; the sagittal ring in the simplest Stephoidea (Archicircus, Lithocircus), the basal tripod in the simplest Plectoidea (Triplagia, Plagiacantha), the latticed cephalis in the simplest Cyrtoidea (Cyrtocalpis, Archicapsa). In the great majority of the Nassellaria, however, two of these elements, or even all three, are found combined. In most Cyrtellaria, more especially, both the sagittal ring and the basal tripod may be recognised in the lattice-shell, though often only in slight rudiments or scarcely perceptible traces. In the Plectellaria also (which possess no latticed cephalis) there are individual genera with complete development both of the sagittal ring and basal tripod; this important combination is especially well represented in the Cortinida (Cortina, Cortiniscus, Stephanium, Stephaniscus, Tripocoronis, &c.). The greatest difficulty as regards the phylogeny of the Nassellaria lies in the fact that the most various combinations of the three elements are presented by closely related or very similar forms. If, in spite of this, a monophyletic hypothesis as to the origin of the Nassellaria seems essential all sides of the three possible hypotheses must receive full consideration and critical comparison (§§ [183]-[191]).

183. Ascent of the Nassellaria from the Plectoidea.—The monophyletic hypothesis (No. 2, p. [893]) which regards the basal tripod as the common origin of the skeleton of all Nassellaria, starts from the simplest forms of the Plectoidea (Triplagia, Plagoniscus, Triplecta, Plectaniscus, &c., Pl. [91]). All Plectoidea may be immediately derived as diverging twigs of these, as well as all triradial and multiradial forms of Cyrtoidea and Spyroidea; for in all these cases the distinctive triradial (or the derived multiradial) form of skeleton appears directly derivable from the simple basal tripod of the former. The same is perhaps also true of many Botryodea. Furthermore, certain important forms of Stephoidea (Cortina, Cortiniscus, Stephanium, Stephaniscus, &c.), which have a characteristic combination of the sagittal ring and basal tripod, may be immediately derived from such forms of Plectoidea as Plagoniscus cortinaris, Plagiocarpa procortina, Plectaniscus cortiniscus, &c. On the contrary, those Stephoidea and Cyrtoidea in which the basal tripod is wanting can only be derived from the Plectoidea by the assumption that this structure has disappeared in consequence of phylogenetic degeneration. The monophyletic derivation of the Nassellaria from the Plectoidea has more internal probability than that from the Stephoidea, since it is easier to suppose that the Cortinida (Cortina, Stephanium, &c.) have been derived from the Plectoidea (Plagoniscus, Plagiocarpa) than the converse. This view is the basis of the hypothetical tree shown in § [180].

184. Ascent of the Nassellaria from the Stephoidea.—The monophyletic hypothesis (No. 1, p. [893]) which regards the primary sagittal ring as the common starting point of the skeleton in all Nassellaria, starts from the simplest forms of Stephoidea (Archicircus, Lithocircus, &c., Pl. [81]). All Stephoidea and Spyroidea may be immediately derived from these, as also the majority of the Cyrtoidea and probably of the Botryodea. Those numerous forms of the last two groups, however, which possess no trace of a sagittal ring, can only be derived from the former by the supposition that the latter has completely disappeared in in consequence of gradual phylogenetic degeneration. The same holds true also of the Plectoidea, although certain forms (e.g., Plagiocarpa procortina, Pl. [91], fig. 5; Plectaniscus cortiniscus, Pl. [91], fig. 9) appear to indicate the commencing formation of the sagittal ring by the concrescence of two branches, which approach each other from the upper part of the apical rod and the ventral part of the basal rod. In any case, it is a fact of great phylogenetic significance, that the primary sagittal ring in the cephalis of the Cyrtoidea shows all conceivable stages of degeneration (compare Bütschli, L. N. [40], [41], as well as the general account of and critical comparison of the Nassellaria, pp. [889]-[895], &c.).

185. Ascent of the Nassellaria from the Cyrtoidea.—The monophyletic hypothesis (No. 3, p. [894]) which regards the latticed cephalis as the common point of origin of all the skeletons of the Nassellaria, starts from the simplest forms of the Cyrtoidea, that is, from the Cyrtocalpida or eradial Monocyrtida (Archicorida, Archicapsida, Pls. [51], [52], [98]). All Cyrtoidea and Botryodea may be regarded as divergent forms of these monothalamous Cyrtoidea; the polythalamous simply by the addition of fresh joints at the basal pole, the triradiate and multiradiate by the development of three or more apophyses. The origin of the sagittal ring (which presents every stage of development and degeneration in the Cyrtoidea) may be regarded as a mechanical thickening of the latticed plate in the sagittal circumference of the cephalis. By stronger development of this ring and coincident sagittal constriction of the cephalis the order Spyroidea may be derived from the Cyrtoidea. On the other hand, the Plectellaria, which possess no cephalis, and indeed no complete lattice-shell whatever, may be derived from the Monocyrtida by the assumption of a degeneration of this structure; the sagittal ring having been preserved in the Stephoidea, and the tripod of the Tripocalpida in the Plectoidea. Although such a monophyletic derivation of the Nassellaria from the Cyrtocalpida is possible, and though here, too, the Cortinida play an important part as connecting links, this hypothesis has less internal probability than that of the derivation from the Stephoidea (§ [184]) or Plectoidea (§ [183]).

186. Genealogical Tree of the Plectoidea.—The order Plectoidea includes those Nassellaria whose rudimentary skeleton does not contain the characteristic sagittal ring of the Stephoidea, but consists of several (at least three) radial spines, which proceed from a point in the centre of the porochora. The branches of these radial spines remain free in the Plagonida, whilst in the Plectanida they unite with each other to form a loose meshwork (not, however, a complete lattice-shell). The number and arrangement of the radial spines, which serve for generic distinctions, are the same in both families, so that each genus of the Plectanida has arisen from a corresponding genus of the Plagonida. The simplest Plagonida, which possess a basal tripod (Triplagia or Plagiacantha with three rays, Tetraplagia with four rays) are probably to be regarded as forming the common origin of the whole order. These agree with certain three- and four-rayed skeletal pieces of the Beloidea (Thalassosphærida and Sphærozoida); and also the four and six-rayed twinned pieces of the latter (spicula bigemina and trigemina) repeat in the same fashion the skeleton of the former (Plagonidium, Plagonium). This similarity, however, is a mere analogy and possesses no phylogenetic significance. On the other hand, certain Plagonida (Plagoniscus, Plagiocarpa), and the corresponding genera of Plectanida (Plectaniscus, Periplecta) seem to have important phylogenetic relations to certain Stephoidea (Cortina, Cortiniscus, &c.); the sagittal ring of the latter having perhaps arisen by the vertical apical spine of the former having been connected with their horizontal basal rod by two ventral apophyses growing out opposite to each other (compare pp. [902], [914], Plagiocarpa procortina, Pl. [91], fig. 5). In this case the Plectanida would belong to the simplest stem-forms of the Nassellaria.

187. Genealogical Tree of the Stephoidea.—The order Stephoidea includes all those Nassellaria whose skeleton does not form a complete lattice-shell, but consists of one or more rings, and often of a loose meshwork which arises by the union of branches of the rings. A vertical sagittal ring is constantly present, embracing the central capsule in the median sagittal plane, and forming at its basal pole various processes, the starting point for other skeletal forms. The most important of these is the tripodal Cortina (p. [950], § [182]). The Stephanida are the most archaic family among the Stephoidea (p. [937], Pl. [81]), perhaps indeed among all the Nassellaria (§ [184]); in them the sagittal ring and its processes alone constitute the skeleton; secondary rings and meshes are wanting. Two diverging families, the Semantida and Coronida, have been developed from the Stephanida, and from one of them the family Tympanida has arisen.

The Semantida (p. [953], Pl. [92]) develop a horizontal basal ring at the oral side of the vertical sagittal ring; the basal meshes or lattice gates, which remain between the former and the latter, are the important cortinar pores (one pair jugular, one pair cardinal, p. [954]); they usually appear inherited in the cortinar septum of the Cyrtellaria. In the Coronida (p. [967], Pls. [82], [94]) a second vertical ring (the frontal ring) appears in addition to the sagittal ring; it lies in the frontal plane at right angles to the latter. Finally the Tympanida (p. [987], Pls. [93], [94]) have probably arisen from the Semantida by the formation of a second horizontal ring (mitral ring) parallel to the basal and attached to the upper portion of the sagittal ring.