188. Genealogical Tree of the Spyroidea.—The extensive order Spyroidea is of especial interest in connection with the phylogeny of the Nassellaria, since all its members show two well-developed skeletal elements in combination, the sagittal ring of the Stephoidea and the latticed cephalis of the Cyrtoidea; the majority possess also the basal tripod of the Plectoidea (or a radial skeleton derived from it). Hence there is a possibility of deriving the stem-forms of the Spyroidea from each of these three groups. The four families of this order exhibit similar relationships to those of the four families of Cyrtoidea; the common stem-group is the family Zygospyrida; from this the Tholospyrida have arisen by the development of a galea on the apical pole, the Phormospyrida by the addition of a thorax on the basal pole. The Androspyrida may be derived either from the Tholospyrida by the formation of a basal thorax, or from the Phormospyrida by the development of an apical galea. Some groups, however, such as the peculiar Nephrospyrida (Pl. [90]) have probably been developed directly from the Stephoidea.

189. Genealogical Tree of the Botryodea.—The peculiar order Botryodea (p. [1103]), which is both difficult to investigate and insufficiently known, presents great phylogenetic difficulties both as to its ascent and descent. Probably the different genera of this order have been polyphyletically developed from different groups of Cyrtoidea (perhaps also to some extent of Spyroidea) by the formation of lobes in the cephalis. The three families of Botryodea are related to each other in the same way as are the three first families of the Cyrtoidea. From the single-jointed Cannobotryida (corresponding to the Monocyrtida), the two-jointed Lithobotryida (corresponding to the Dicyrtida), may be derived by the development of a basal thorax, and from the latter the three-jointed Pylobotryida (like the Tricyrtida) by the addition of an abdomen. In the last two families the forms with an open basal mouth (Botryopylida and Botryocyrtida) are to be regarded as primitive: the Botryocellida and Botryocampida have arisen by the closure of this mouth with a basal lattice-plate.

190. Genealogical Tree of the Cyrtoidea.—The multiform and extensive group Cyrtoidea presents the greatest difficulties to be found in the phylogeny of the Nassellaria, because their morphological relations are most complicated, and because similar forms very often appear to be of quite different origin. The great majority of the Cyrtoidea show more or less clearly a combination of the three structural elements: sagittal ring, basal tripod, and latticed cephalis (p. [891]). There are also, however, numerous Cyrtoidea, whose skeleton no longer shows any trace of the sagittal ring. Many of these show as the basis of the skeleton a strong basal tripod with an apical spine, around which the cephalis has obviously been secondarily developed, e.g., the remarkable Euscenida (p. [1146], Pls. [53], [97]) and the interesting Callimitrida (p. [1217], Pls. [63], [64]). These may have been derived immediately from the Plectoidea without any relation to the Stephoidea. There are also numerous true Monocyrtida, whose shell consists of a simple latticed cephalis without a trace of the sagittal ring or basal tripod (Cyrtocalpida, Pl. [51], figs. 9-13; Pl. [98], fig. 13); these may have been developed directly from the skeletonless Nassellida by the formation of a simple ovoid Gromia-like shell, and may have no relation either to the Stephoidea or Plectoidea. On these grounds, as well as from the complicated relationships of the many smaller groups of Cyrtoidea, it is probable that the whole order has been developed polyphyletically from different divisions of the Plectellaria.

191. Systematic Arrangement of the Cyrtoidea.—Although for the reasons just given no systematic arrangement of the Cyrtoidea can at present, or for a long time in the future, be regarded as other than artificial, yet some general principles of classification for this extensive group can be laid down, which may serve as starting points for some future natural disposition. This is especially true of the relations which in an artificial system (p. [1129]) were primarily utilised for the distinction of twelve families and twenty-four subfamilies; the number of segments in the shell, the number of radial apophyses (and parameres), and the constitution of the basal aperture of the shell.

As regards the number of segments, separated by transverse constrictions, of which the shell is composed, it is dependent upon the secondary addition of new joints at the basal pole of the main axis. Hence all many-jointed Cyrtoidea are to be derived from single-jointed ones, and the four sections thus distinguished (Monocyrtida, Dicyrtida, Tricyrtida, Stichocyrtida) form a phylogenetic series. Very often, however, the primary cephalis disappears owing to retrograde metamorphosis; and in such cases the single joint of the apparent Monocyrtida is formed of the thorax (e.g., Pls. [52], [54], &c.). As regards the number of radial apophyses, three sections of Cyrtoidea may be distinguished; the Pilocyrtida with three, the Astrocyrtida with numerous apophyses, and the Corocyrtida with none (p. [1129]). The last two may in general be regarded as two divergent branches from the first, for the eradiate Corocyrtida have probably been formed from the triradial Pilocyrtida by entire loss of the radial apophyses, whilst on the other hand the multiradiate Astrocyrtida have arisen from them by additions to the primary apophyses (interpolation of interradial between the perradial ones). As regards the constitution of the shell-aperture, the Cyrtoidea may be divided into Cyrtaperta and Cyrtoclausa (p. [1129]); in general the Cyrtoclausa (with latticed shell-aperture) have arisen from the Cyrtaperta (with simple open mouth); in many Monocyrtida the converse may be supposed, the simple basal mouth having been formed by degeneration of a basal lattice.

192. Phylogeny of the Phæodaria.—The legion Phæodaria or Cannopylea is so clearly marked off from other Radiolaria by the double membrane of the central capsule and the astropyle at its oral pole, as well as by the extracapsular phæodium, that it must be regarded phylogenetically as an independent stem (§ [9]). This stem is only connected at its root by Phæodina with the stem-form of the Spumellaria, Actissa. The stem itself is monophyletic, inasmuch it its members may be derived without violence from the skeletonless Phæodinida (Phæodina, Phæocolla). On the other hand, the formation of the skeleton of the Phæodaria is undoubtedly polyphyletic, different Phæodinida having independently commenced the formation of a skeleton and having carried it out in very different ways.

193. Origin of the Phæodaria.—The Phæodinida (p. [1544], Pl. [101]), which may naturally be regarded as the common stem-group of the Phæodaria, have their nearest relations among other Radiolaria in the Thalassicollida (p. [10]); and since this family is to be regarded as the primitive group of all Radiolaria, they may be directly derived from them phylogenetically. The essential modifications by which the primitive Phæodinida have arisen from the more archaic Thalassicollida are of three kinds; (1) the doubling of the membrane of the central capsule; (2) the reduction of the numerous fine pores in the membrane and the formation of an osculum, and of an astropyle closing it, at the oral pole of the main axis; (3) the production of an extracapsular phæodium. This last may, perhaps, be regarded as a unilateral hypertrophy of the voluminous pigment masses which are deposited in the sarcomatrix of certain Thalassicollida. Of the two genera of Phæodinida hitherto known, probably Phæodina (Pl. [101], fig. 2) approaches the original stem of the Phæodaria more nearly than Phæocolla (Pl. [101], fig. 1), for the latter exhibits only the large main opening of the central capsule (astropyle), whilst the former possesses also a pair of accessory openings (parapylæ). The hypothetical stem-form (Phæometra) presumably had a larger number of small parapylæ (like many Circoporida and Tuscarorida), and the astropyle was probably but little differentiated from them.

194. Hypothetical Genealogical tree of the Phæodaria:

Phæoconchia
PhæosphæriaCœloplegmidaPhæogromia
AularidaTuscarorida
Cœlodrymida
Aulonida
Cœlotholida
Cœlographida
Haeckelinida
ConchopsidaCœlodorida
AulosphæridaCœlodendridaCircogonida
Conchasmida
Concharida
Sagmarida
CastanellidaCircoporida
Cannosphærida
OroscenidaConcharida
Sagenida
Sagophærida
Gazellettida
Oronida
Orosphærida
Pharyngellida
Euphysettida
Medusettida
Lithogromida
Challengerida
Phæodinida
Phæocystina
Aulacanthida
CannobelidaCatinulida
Dictyochida
Phæodinida
CannorrhaphidaPhæodinida
Phæodina
(Phæometra)
Actissa
Phæoconchia
PhæosphæriaCœloplegmida
Aularida
Cœlodrymida
Aulonida
Cœlotholida
Cœlographida
ConchopsidaCœlodorida
AulosphæridaCœlodendrida
Conchasmida
Concharida
Sagmarida
Cannosphærida
OroscenidaConcharida
Sagenida
Sagophærida
Oronida
Orosphærida
Phæodinida
Phæogromia
Tuscarorida
Haeckelinida
Circogonida
CastanellidaCircoporida
Gazellettida
Pharyngellida
Euphysettida
Medusettida
Lithogromida
Challengerida
Phæocystina
Aulacanthida
CannobelidaCatinulida
Dictyochida
PhæodinidaPhæodinida
CannorrhaphidaPhæodinida
Phæodina
(Phæometra)
Actissa