Research methods in ecology

by Frederic E. Clements

ALTERNATION

342. Concept. The term alternation is used to designate that phenomenon of vegetation, in which a formation recurs at different places in a region, or a species at separate points in a formation. Although it is a fundamental feature of vegetation, it has been recognized but recently.[^[41]]

Alternation is the response of vegetation to the heterogeneity of the surface of the earth. It is in sharp contrast to zonation, inasmuch as it is directly caused by asymmetry in the topography. In consequence, it deals with the subdivisions of zones, arising from physical differences within the symmetrical area. It deals with vegetation areas of every rank below that of major zone, with the habitat and geographical areas of species, and, in a certain way, with the correspondence of vicarious genera. The breaking up of vegetation into formations is a striking example of alternation. The same phenomenon occurs in every formation, producing consocies and minor plant groups, and everywhere giving variation to its surface and structure. The essential idea involved in this principle is the recurrence of like formations, consocies, or groups, which are more or less separated by formations, consocies, or groups differing from them. It is an exact expression of the primary law of association that heterogeneity of structure varies directly as the extent and complexity of the habitat, or the series of habitats. Vegetation is made up of what are superficially homogeneous formations, but upon analysis these are seen to contain consocies. The latter, though more uniform than formations, break up into groups, each of which still shows a characteristic heterogeneity arising from the varying number and arrangement of its constituent species.

343. Causes. The primary cause of alternation is physical asymmetry, which is everywhere present within the symmetrical areas which produce zones. This is influenced so strongly, however, by migration and plant competition (phyteris) that the consideration of this subject will gain in clearness if these are treated as separate causes. The essential relation between them must not be lost sight of, however. Migration carries disseminules into all, or only some of the different areas of a formation, or into different formations, with little respect to the physical nature of these. The physical character of these asymmetrical areas determines that some of these plants shall be established in one series of places, and some in another, while the competition between the individuals in the various areas determines the numerical value of each species as well as its persistence. These three causes are invariably present in the production of alternating areas, and originally, i. e., in new or denuded soils, the sequence is constant, viz., migration, ecesis in asymmetrical areas, and competition.

With respect to the different portions of an asymmetrical area, migration will have one of three effects: (1) it will carry disseminules into both favorable and unfavorable areas, (2) into favorable ones only, or (3) into unfavorable ones alone. From the radial nature of migration, the first case is far the most frequent; it is typical of sporostrotes, and the highly specialized spermatostrotes and carpostrotes. The effect of migration is uniform here, and alternation arises in consequence of the selective power of ecesis. It is evident that migration does not have an even indirect effect, when the disseminules are carried into none but unfavorable situations. Where the movement is into favorable places alone, alternation is the immediate result. The intermittent operation of migration and the presence of barriers are responsible for the absence of plants in situations favorable to them, and in consequence bring about a certain alternation between corresponding species.

The selective operation of physical factors upon the disseminules carried into the different parts of an asymmetrical area is the usual cause of alternation. Asymmetry alone is universal within the more conspicuous structures termed zones, down to the smallest areas which a group of plants can occupy. The difference between contiguous areas, particularly within the same habitat, is often small. It sometimes seems inefficient in the initial stages of a succession when a single species is present, but even in extreme cases its effect will be recognizable in the size and density of the individuals. Asymmetry is clearly evident in vegetation where two symmetrical series cross each other, or when a symmetry is interrupted by barrier-like elevations or depressions. Within formations, it arises from differences, often very slight, in slope, exposure, elevation, from irregularities of surface, differences in soil structure, or composition, in the amount of cover, and in the reactions of the living plants. At the last point, it is in direct connection with plant competition.

344. Competition. Much uncertainty, as well as diversity of opinion, seems still to exist in regard to the precise nature of the competition between plants that occupy the same area. It has long been admitted that the phrase, “struggle for existence,” is true of this relation only in the most figurative sense, but the feeling still prevails that, since plants live in associations, there must be something mysterious and vitalistic in their relation. No one has been able to discover anything of this nature, but nevertheless the impression remains. Such a direct relation exists only between parasites, epiphytes, and lianes, and the plants which serve to nourish or support them. In the case of plants growing on the same stratum, actual competition between plant and plant does not occur. One individual can affect another only in as much as it changes the physical factors that influence the latter. Competition is a question of the reaction of a plant upon the physical factors which encompass it, and of the effect of these modified factors upon the adjacent plants. In the exact sense, two plants do not compete with each other as long as the water-content and nutrition, the heat and light are in excess of the needs of both. The moment, however, that the roots of one enter the area from which the other draws its water supply, or the foliage of one begins to overshade the leaves of the other, the reaction of the former modifies unfavorably the factors controlling the latter, and competition is at once initiated. The same relation exists throughout the process; the stronger, taller, the more branched, or the better rooted plant reacts upon the habitat, and the latter immediately exerts an unfavorable effect upon the weaker, shorter, less branched, or more poorly rooted plant. This action of plant upon habitat and of habitat upon plant is cumulative, however. An increase in the leaf surface of a plant not merely reduces the amount of light and heat available for the plant near it or beneath it, but it also renders necessary the absorption of more water and other nutritive material, and correspondingly decreases the amount available. The inevitable result is that the successful individual prospers more and more, while the less successful one loses ground in the same degree. As a consequence, the latter disappears entirely, or it is handicapped to such an extent that it fails to produce seeds, or these are reduced in number or vitality.

Competition in vegetation furnishes few instances as simple as the above, but this will serve to make clear the simplest case of ordinary competition, i. e., that in which the individuals belong to a single species. The various individuals of one species which grow together in a patch show relatively slight differences, in height, width, leaf expanse, or root surface. Still, some will have the largest surfaces for the impact of water, heat, and light, while others will have the smallest; the majority, perhaps, will occupy different places between the extremes. The former will receive more than their share of one or more factors. The reaction thus produced will operate upon the plants subject to it inversely as the amount of surface impinged upon. The usual expression of such competition is seen in the great variation in height, branching, etc., of the different individuals, and in the inability of many to produce flowers. This is particularly true of annuals, and of perennials of the same generation. In the competition between parents and offspring of the same perennial species, the former usually have so much the advantage that the younger plants are often unable to thrive or even germinate, and disappear, leaving a free space beneath and about the stronger parents. This illustrates the primary law of competition, viz., that this is closest when the individuals are most similar. Similar individuals make nearly the same demands upon the habitat, and adjust themselves least readily to their mutual reactions. The more unlike plants are, the greater the difference in their needs, and some are able to adjust themselves to the reactions of others with little or no disadvantage.

In accordance with the above principles, the competition is closer between species of like form than between those that are dissimilar. This similarity must be one of vegetation or habitat form, not one of systematic position. The latter is in fact of no significance, except where there is a certain correspondence between the two. Leaf, stem, and root characters determine the outcome, and those species most alike in these features will be in close competition, regardless of their taxonomic similarity or dissimilarity. This is as conclusive of the competition between the species of the same genus as it is between those belonging to genera of widely separated families. From this may be deduced a second principle of competition, viz., the closeness of the competition between the individuals of different species varies directly with their similarity in vegetation or habitat form. This principle is of primary importance in the competition which arises between occupants and invaders in the different stages of succession. Those invading species that show the greatest resemblance to occupants in leaf, stem, and root form experience the greatest difficulty in establishing themselves. The species, on the contrary, which are so unlike the occupants that they come in at a clear advantage or disadvantage, establish themselves readily, in the one case as a result of the reaction, in the other by taking a subordinate position. This principle lies at the base of the changes in succession which give a peculiar stamp to each stage. A reaction sufficient to bring about the disappearance of one stage can be produced only by the entrance of invaders so different in form as to materially or entirely change the impress of the formation. Stabilization results when the entrance of invaders of such form as to exert an efficient reaction is no longer possible. In forests, while many vegetation forms can still enter, none of these produce a reaction sufficient to place the trees at a disadvantage, and the ultimate forest stage, though it may change in composition, can not be displaced by another.

It is obvious that the vegetation forms and habitat forms of associated species are of fundamental importance in determining the course and result of competition. Identity of vegetation form regularly produces close competition, and the consequent numerical reduction or disappearance of one or more species. Dissimilarity, on the other hand, tends to eliminate competition, and to preserve the advantage of the superior form. Species of trees compete sharply with each other when found together; the same is true of shrubs, or rosettes, etc. The relation of the shrubs to the trees, or of the rosettes to the shrubs of a formation is one of subordination rather than of competition. The matter of height and width often enters here also to such a degree that the tallest herbs compete with the bushes and shrubs, and rosettes with mats or grasses. The amount and disposition of the leaf surface are decisive factors in the competition between species of the same vegetation form, in so far as this is governed by light. In those plants in which the leaves are usually erect, notably the grasses and sedges, the competition between the aerial parts is relatively slight, and the result is determined by the reactions of the underground stems and roots.