CHAPTER XCI.
FIRST PERIOD OF THE REIGN OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT — SIEGE AND CAPTURE OF THEBES.
State of Greece at Alexander’s accession — dependence on the Macedonian kings. — Unwilling subjection of the Greeks — influence of Grecian intelligence on Macedonia. — Basis of Alexander’s character — not Hellenic. — Boyhood and Education of Alexander. — He receives instruction from Aristotle. — Early political action and maturity of Alexander — his quarrels with his father. Family discord. — Uncertainty of Alexander’s position during the last year of Philip. — Impression produced by the sudden death of Philip. — Accession of Alexander — his energy and judgment. — Accomplices of Pausanias are slain by Alexander — Amyntas and others are slain by him also. — Sentiment at Athens on the death of Philip — language of Demosthenes — inclination to resist Macedonia, yet without overt act. — Discontent in Greece — but no positive movement. — March of Alexander into Greece — submission of Athens. — Alexander is chosen Imperator of the Greeks in the convention at Corinth — continued refusal of concurrence by Sparta. — Conditions of the vote thus passed — privileges granted to the cities. — Authority claimed by Alexander under the convention — degradation of the leading Grecian states. — Encroachments and tyranny of the Macedonian officers in Greece — complaints of the orators at Athens. — Violations of the convention at sea by Macedonian officers. — Language of the complaining Athenians — they insist only on strict observance of the convention. Boldness of their language. — Encouragements held out by Persia to the Greeks. — Correspondence of Demosthenes with Persia — justifiable and politic. — March of Alexander into Thrace. He forces his way over Mount Hæmus. — His victory over the Triballi. — He crosses the Danube, defeats the Getæ, and returns back. — Embassy of Gauls to Alexander. His self-conceit. — Victories of Alexander over Kleitus and the Illyrians. — The Thebans declare their independence against Macedonia. — They are encouraged by Alexander’s long absence in Thrace, and by reports of his death. — The Theban exiles from Athens get possession of Thebes. — They besiege the Macedonians in the Kadmeia, and entreat aid from other Greeks. Favorable sympathies shown towards them, but no positive aid. — Chances of Thebes and liberation, not unfavorable. — Rapid march and unexpected arrival of Alexander with his army before Thebes. His good fortune as to the time of hearing the news. — Siege of Thebes. Proclamation of Alexander. Determination of the Thebans to resist. — Capture of Thebes by assault. Massacre of the population. — Thebes is razed; the Theban captives sold as slaves; the territory distributed among the neighboring cities. — The Kadmeia is occupied as a Macedonian Military post. Retribution upon the Thebans from Orchomenus and Platæa. — Sentiments of Alexander, at the time and afterwards, respecting the destruction of Thebes. — Extreme terror spread throughout Greece. Sympathy of the Athenians towards the Theban exiles. — Alexander demands the surrender of the chief anti-Macedonian leaders at Athens. Memorable debate at Athens. The demand refused. — Embassy of the Athenians to Alexander. He is persuaded to acquiesce in the refusal, and to be satisfied with the banishment of Charidemus and Ephialtes. — Influence of Phokion in obtaining these milder terms — his increased ascendency at Athens. — Alexander at Corinth — obedience of the Grecian synod — interview with the philosopher Diogenes. — Reconstitution of Orchomenus and Platæa. Return of Alexander to Pella. — Military operations of Parmenio in Asia Minor against Memnon.
CHAPTER XCII.
ASIATIC CAMPAIGNS OF ALEXANDER.
During Alexander’s reign, the history of Greece is nearly a blank. To what extent the Asiatic projects of Alexander belonged to Grecian history. — Pan-hellenic pretences set up by Alexander. The real feeling of the Greeks was adverse to his success. — Analogy of Alexander’s relation to the Greeks — with those of the Emperor Napoleon to the Confederation of the Rhine. — Greece an appendage, but a valuable appendage, to Macedonia. — Extraordinary military endowments and capacity of Alexander. — Changes in Grecian warfare, antecedent and contributory to the military organization of Macedonia. — Macedonian military condition before Philip. Good and firm cavalry: poor infantry. — Philip re-arms and reorganizes the infantry. Long Macedonian pike or sarissa. — Macedonian phalanx — how armed and arrayed. — It was originally destined to contend against the Grecian hoplites as organized by Epaminondas. — Regiments and divisions of the phalanx — heavy-armed infantry. — Light infantry of the line — Hypaspistæ, or Guards. — Light troops generally — mostly foreigners. — Macedonian cavalry — its excellence — how regimented. — The select Macedonian Body-guards. The Royal Pages. — Foreign auxiliaries — Grecian hoplites — Thessalian cavalry — Pæonians — Illyrians — Thracians, etc. — Magazines, war-office, and depôt, at Pella. — Macedonian aptitudes — purely military — military pride stood to them in lieu of national sentiment. — Measures of Alexander previous to his departure for Asia. Antipater left as viceroy at Pella. — March of Alexander to the Hellespont. Passage across to Asia. — Visit of Alexander to Ilium. — Analogy of Alexander to the Greek heroes. — Review and total of the Macedonian army in Asia. — Chief Macedonian officers. — Greeks in Alexander’s service — Eumenes of Kardia. — Persian forces — Mentor and Memnon the Rhodians. — Succession of the Persian crown — Ochus — Darius Codomannus. — Preparations of Darius for defence. — Operations of Memnon before Alexander’s arrival. — Superiority of the Persians at sea: their imprudence in letting Alexander cross the Hellespont unopposed. — Persian force assembled in Phrygia, under Arsites and others. — Advice of Memnon, to avoid fighting on land, and to employ the fleet for aggressive warfare in Macedonia and Greece. — Arsites rejects Memnon’s advice, and determines to fight. — The Persians take post on the river Granikus. — Alexander reaches the Granikus, and resolves to force the passage at once, in spite of the dissuasion of Permenio. — Disposition of the two armies. — Battle of the Granikus. — Cavalry battle. — Personal danger of Alexander. His life saved by Kleitus. Complete victory of Alexander. Destruction of the Grecian infantry on the side of the Persians. — Loss of the Persians — numbers of their leading men slain. — Small loss of the Macedonians. — Alexander’s kindness to his wounded soldiers, and severe treatment of the Grecian prisoners. — Unskilfulness of the Persian leaders. Immense impression produced by Alexander’s victory. — Terror and submission of the Asiatics to Alexander. Surrender of the strong fortress of Sardis. — He marches from Sardis to the coast. Capture of Ephesus. — He finds the first resistance at Miletus. — Near approach of the Persian fleet. Memnon is made commander-in-chief of the Persians. — The Macedonian fleet occupies the harbor of Miletus, and keeps out the Persians. Alexander declines naval combat. His debate with Parmenio. — Alexander besieges Miletus. Capture of the city. — The Persian fleet retires to Halikarnassus. Alexander disbands his own fleet. — March of Alexander to Halikarnassus. Ada queen of Karia joins him. Strong garrison, and good defensive preparation, at Halikarnassus. — Siege of Halikarnassus. Bravery of the garrison, under Ephialtes the Athenian. — Desperate sally of Ephialtes — at first successful, but repulsed — he himself is slain. — Memnon is forced to abandon Halikarnassus, and withdraw the garrison by sea, retaining only the citadel. Alexander enters Halikarnassus. — Winter campaign of Alexander along the southern coast of Asia Minor. — Alexander concludes his winter campaign at Gordium. Capture of Kelænæ. — Appendix on the Macedonian Sarissa.
CHAPTER XCIII.
SECOND AND THIRD ASIATIC CAMPAIGNS OF ALEXANDER — BATTLE OF ISSUS — SIEGE OF TYRE.