Alexander cuts the Gordian knot. — He refuses the liberation of the Athenian prisoners. — Progress of Memnon and the Persian fleet — they acquire Chios and a large part of Lesbos — they besiege Mitylene. Death of Memnon. Capture of Mitylene. — Hopes excited in Greece by the Persian fleet, but ruined by the death of Memnon. — Memnon’s death an irreparable mischief to Darius. — Change in Darius’s plan caused by this event. He resolves to take the offensive on land. His immense land-force. — Free speech and sound judgment of Charidemus. He is put to death by Darius. — Darius abandoned Memnon’s plans, just at the time when he had the best defensive position for executing them with effect. — Darius recalls the Grecian mercenaries from the fleet. — Criticism of Arrian on Darius’s plan. — March of Alexander from Gordium through Paphlagonia and Kappadokia. — He arrives at the line of Mount Taurus — difficulties of the pass. — Conduct of Arsames, the Persian satrap. Alexander passes Mount Taurus without the least resistance. He enters Tarsus. — Dangerous illness of Alexander. His confidence in the physician Philippus, who cures him. — Operations of Alexander in Kilikia. — March of Alexander out of Kilikia, through Issus, to Myriandrus. — March of Darius from the interior to the eastern side of Mount Amanus. Immense numbers of his army: great wealth and ostentation in it: the treasure and baggage sent to Damascus. — Position of Darius on the plain eastward of Mount Amanus. He throws open the mountain passes, to let Alexander come through and fight a pitched battle. — Impatience of Darius at the delay of Alexander in Kilikia. He crosses Mount Amanus to attack Alexander in the defiles of Kilikia. — He arrives in Alexander’s rear, and captures Issus. — Return of Alexander from Myriandrus: his address to his army. — Position of the Macedonian army south of the river Pinarus. — Position of the Persian army north of the Pinarus. — Battle of Issus. — Alarm and immediate flight of Darius — defeat of the Persians. — Vigorous and destructive pursuit by Alexander — capture of the mother and wife of Darius. — Courteous treatment of the regal female prisoners by Alexander. — Complete dispersion of the Persian army — Darius recrosses the Euphrates — escape of some Perso-Grecian mercenaries. — Prodigious effect produced by the victory of Issus. — Effects produced in Greece by the battle of Issus. Anti-Macedonian projects crushed. — Capture of Damascus by the Macedonians, with the Persian treasure and prisoners. Capture and treatment of the Athenian Iphikrates. Altered relative position of Greeks and Macedonians. — Alexander in Phenicia. Aradus, Byblus, and Sidon open their gates to him. — Letter of Darius soliciting peace and the restitution of the regal captives. Haughty reply of Alexander. — Importance of the voluntary surrender of the Phenician towns to Alexander. — Alexander appears before Tyre — readiness of the Tyrians to surrender, yet not without a point reserved — he determines to besiege the city. — Exorbitant dispositions and conduct of Alexander. — He prepares to besiege Tyre — situation of the place. — Chances of the Tyrians — their resolution not unreasonable. — Alexander constructs a mole across the strait between Tyre and the mainland. The project is defeated. — Surrender of the princes of Cyprus to Alexander — He gets hold of the main Phenician and Cyprian fleet. — He appears before Tyre with a numerous fleet, and blocks up the place by sea. — Capture of Tyre by storm — desperate resistance by the citizens. — Surviving males, 2000 in number, hanged by order of Alexander — The remaining captives sold. — Duration of the siege for seven months. Sacrifice of Alexander to Herakles. — Second letter from Darius to Alexander, who requires unconditional submission. — The Macedonian fleet overpowers the Persian and becomes master of the Ægean with the islands. — March of Alexander towards Egypt — siege of Gaza. — His first assaults fail — he is wounded — he erects an immense mound round the town. — Gaza is taken by storm, after a siege of two months. — The garrison are all slain, except the governor Batis, who becomes prisoner, severely wounded. — Wrath of Alexander against Batis, whom he causes to be tied to a chariot, and dragged round the town. — Alexander enters Egypt, and occupies it without resistance — He determines on founding Alexandria. — His visit to the temple and oracle of Ammon. The oracle proclaims him to be the son of Zeus. — Arrangements made by Alexander at Memphis. — Grecian prisoners brought from the Ægean. — He proceeds to Phenicia — message from Athens. Splendid festivals. Reinforcements sent to Antipater. — He marches to the Euphrates — crosses it without opposition at Thapsakus. — March across from the Euphrates to the Tigris. Alexander fords the Tigris above Nineveh, without resistance. — Eclipse of the moon. Alexander approaches near the army of Darius in position. — Inaction of Darius since the defeat at Issus. — Paralyzing effect upon him produced by the captivity of his mother and wife. — Good treatment of the captive females by Alexander — necessary to keep up their value as hostages. — Immense army collected by Darius, in the plains eastward of the Tigris — near Arbela. — He fixes the spot for encamping and awaiting the attack of Alexander — in a level plain near Gaugamela. — His equipment and preparation — better arms — numerous scythed chariots — elephants. — Position and battle array of Darius. — Preliminary movements of Alexander — discussions with Parmenio and other officers. His careful reconnoitring in person. — Dispositions of Alexander for the attack — array of the troops. — Battle of Arbela. — Cowardice of Darius — he sets the example of flight — defeat of the Persians. — Combat on the Persian right between Mazæus and Parmenio. Flight of the Persian host — energetic pursuit by Alexander. — Escape of Darius. Capture of the Persian camp, and of Arbela. — Loss in the battle. Completeness of the victory. Entire and irreparable dispersion of the Persian army. — Causes of the defeat — cowardice of Darius. Uselessness of his immense numbers. — Generalship of Alexander. — Surrender of Babylon and Susa, the two great capitals of Persia. Alexander enters Babylon. Immense treasures acquired in both places. — Alexander acts as king of Persia, and nominates satraps. He marches to Susa. He remodels the divisions of his army. — Alexander marches into Persis proper — he conquers the refractory Uxii, in the intermediate mountains. — Difficult pass called the Susian Gates, on the way to Persepolis. Ariobarzanes the satrap repulses Alexander, who finds means to turn the pass, and conquer it. — Alexander enters Persepolis. Mutilated Grecian captives. — Immense wealth, and national monuments of every sort, accumulated in Persepolis. — Alexander appropriates and carries away the regal treasures, and then gives up Persepolis to be plundered and burnt by the soldiers. — Alexander rests his troops, and employs himself in conquering the rest of Persis. — Darius a fugitive in Media.
CHAPTER XCIV.
MILITARY OPERATIONS AND CONQUESTS OF ALEXANDER, AFTER HIS WINTER QUARTERS IN PERSIS, DOWN TO HIS DEATH AT BABYLON.
The first four Asiatic campaigns of Alexander — their direct bearing and importance in reference to Grecian history. — His last seven years, farther eastward, had no similar bearing upon Greece. — Darius at Ekbatana — seeks escape towards Baktria, when he hears of Alexander approaching. — Alexander enters Ekbatana — establishes there his depôt and base of operations. — Alexander sends home the Thessalian cavalry — necessity for him now to pursue a more desultory warfare. — Alexander pursues Darius to the Caspian Gates, but fails in overtaking him. — Conspiracy formed against Darius by Bessus and others, who seize his person. — Prodigious efforts of Alexander to overtake and get possession of Darius. He surprises the Persian corps, but Bessus puts Darius to death. — Disappointment of Alexander when he missed taking Darius alive. Regal funeral bestowed upon Darius. His fate and conduct. — Repose of Alexander and his army at Hekatompylus in Parthia. Commencing alteration in his demeanor. He becomes Asiatized and despotic. — Gradual aggravation of these new habits, from the present moment. — Alexander conquers the mountains immediately south of the Caspian. He requires the Greek mercenaries to surrender at discretion. Envoys from Sparta and other Greek cities brought to him — how treated. — March of Alexander farther Eastward — his successes in Asia and Drangiana. — Proceedings against Philotas, son of Parmenio, in Drangiana. Military greatness and consideration of the family. — Revelation of an intended conspiracy made by Kebalinus to Philotas, for the purpose of being communicated to Alexander. Philotas does not mention it to Alexander. It is communicated to the latter through another channel. — Alexander is at first angry with Philotas, but accepts his explanation, and professes to pass over the fact. — Ancient grudge against Philotas — advantage taken of the incident to ruin him. — Kraterus and others are jealous of Parmenio and Philotas. Alexander is persuaded to put them both to death. — Arrest of Philotas. Alexander accuses him before the assembled soldiers. He is condemned. — Philotas is put to the torture, and forced to confess, both against himself and Parmenio. — Parmenio is slain at Ekbatana, by order and contrivance of Alexander. Mutiny of the soldiers when they learn the assassination of Parmenio — appeased by the production of Alexander’s order. — Fear and disgust produced by the killing of Parmenio and Philotas. — Conquest of the Paropamisadæ, etc. Foundation of Alexandria ad Caucasum. — Alexander crosses the Hindoo-Koosh, and conquers Baktria. Bessus is made prisoner. — Massacre of the Branchidæ and their families, perpetrated by Alexander in Sogdiana. — Alexander at Marakanda and on the Jaxartes. — Foundation of Alexandria ad Jaxartem. Limit of march northward. — Alexander at Zariaspa in Baktria — he causes Bessus to be mutilated and slain. — Farther subjugation of Baktria and Sogdiana. Halt at Marakanda. — Banquet at Marakanda. — Character and position of Kleitus. — Boasts of Alexander and his flatterers — repugnance of Macedonian officers felt but not expressed. — Scene at the banquet — vehement remonstrance of Kleitus. — Furious wrath of Alexander — he murders Kleitus. — Intense remorse of Alexander, immediately after the deed. — Active and successful operations of Alexander in Sogdiana. — Capture of two inexpugnable positions — the Sogdian rock — the rock of Choriênes. Passion of Alexander for Roxana. — Alexander at Baktra — marriage with Roxana. His demand for prostration or worship from all. — Public harangue of Anaxarchus during a banquet, exhorting every one to render this worship. — Public reply of Kallisthenes, opposing it. Character and history of Kallisthenes. — The reply of Kallisthenes is favorably heard by the guests — the proposition for worship is dropped. — Coldness and disfavor of Alexander towards Kallisthenes. — Honorable frankness and courage of Kallisthenes. — Kallisthenes becomes odious to Alexander. — Conspiracy of the royal pages against Alexander’s life — it is divulged — they are put to torture, but implicate no one else; they are put to death. — Kallisthenes is arrested as an accomplice — antipathy manifested by Alexander against him and against Aristotle also. — Kallisthenes is tortured and hanged. — Alexander reduces the country between the Hindoo-Koosh and the Indus. — Conquest of tribes on the right bank of the Indus — the rock of Aornos. — Alexander crosses the Indus — forces the passage of the Hydaspes, defeating Porus — generous treatment of Porus. — His farther conquests in the Punjab. Sangala the last of them. — He reaches the Hyphasis (Sutledge), the farthest of the rivers of the Punjab. His army refuses to march farther. — Alexander returns to the Hydaspes. — He constructs a fleet and sails down the Hydaspes and the Indus. Dangerous wound of Alexander in attacking the Malli. — New cities and posts to be established on the Indus — Alexander reaches the ocean — effect of the first sight of tides. — March of Alexander by land westward through the desert of Gedrosia — sufferings and losses in the army. — Alexander and the army come back to Persis. — Conduct of Alexander at Persepolis. Punishment of the satrap Orsines. — He marches to Susa — junction with the fleet under Nearchus, after it had sailed round from the mouth of the Indus. — Alexander at Susa as Great King. Subjects of uneasiness to him — the satraps — the Macedonian soldiers. — Past conduct of the satraps — several of them are punished by Alexander — alarm among them all — flight of Harpalus. — Discontents of the Macedonian soldiers with the Asiatizing intermarriages promoted by Alexander. — Their discontent with the new Asiatic soldiers levied and disciplined by Alexander. — Interest of Alexander in the fleet, which sails up the Tigris to Opis. — Notice of partial discharge to the Macedonian soldiers — they mutiny — wrath of Alexander — he disbands them all. — Remorse and humiliation of the soldiers — Alexander is appeased — reconciliation. — Partial disbanding — body of veterans placed under command of Kraterus to return — New projects of conquests contemplated by Alexander — measures for enlarging his fleet. — Visit to Ekbatana — death of Hephæstion — violent sorrow of Alexander. — Alexander exterminates the Kossæi. — March of Alexander to Babylon. Numerous embassies which met him on the way. — Alexander at Babylon — his great preparations for the circumnavigation and conquest of Arabia. — Alexander on shipboard, on the Euphrates and in the marshes adjoining. His plans for improving the navigation and flow of the river. — Large reinforcements arrive, Grecian and Asiatic. New array ordered by Alexander, for Macedonians and Persians in the same files and companies. — Splendid funeral obsequies of Hephæstion. — General feasting and intemperance in the army. Alexander is seized with a dangerous fever. Details of his illness. — No hope of his life. Consternation and grief in the army. Last interview with his soldiers. His death — Effect produced on the imagination of contemporaries by the career and death of Alexander. — Had Alexander lived, he must have achieved things greater still. — Question raised by Livy, about the chances of Alexander if he had attacked the Romans. — Unrivalled excellence as a military man. — Alexander as a ruler, apart from military affairs — not deserving of esteem. — Alexander would have continued the system of the Persian empire, with no other improvement except that of a strong organization. — Absence of nationality in Alexander — purpose of fusing the different varieties of mankind into one common type of subjection. — Mistake of supposing Alexander to be the intentional diffuser of Greek civilization. His ideas compared with those of Aristotle. — Number of new cities founded in Asia by Alexander. — It was not Alexander, but the Diadochi after him, who chiefly hellenized Asia. — How far Asia was ever really hellenized — the great fact was, that the Greek language became universally diffused. — Greco-Asiatic cities. — Increase of the means of communication between various parts of the world. — Interest of Alexander in science and literature — not great.
CHAPTER XCV.
GRECIAN AFFAIRS FROM THE LANDING OF ALEXANDER IN ASIA TO THE CLOSE OF THE LAMIAN WAR.
State of the Grecian world when Alexander crossed the Hellespont. — Grecian spirit might have been called into action if the Persians had played their game well. — Hopes raised in Greece, first by the Persian fleet in the Ægean, next by the two great Persian armies on land. — Public acts and policy at Athens — decidedly pacific. — Phokion and Demades were leading ministers at Athens — they were of macedonizing politics. — Demosthenes and Lykurgus, though not in the ascendent politically, are nevertheless still public men of importance. Financial activity of Lykurgus. — Position of Demosthenes — his prudent conduct — Anti-Macedonian movement from Sparta — King Agis visits the Persian admirals in the Ægean. His attempts both in Krete and in the Peloponnesus. — Agis levies an army in Peloponnesus, and makes open declaration against Antipater. — Agis, at first partially successful, is completely defeated by Antipater, and slain. — Complete submission of all Greece to Antipater — Spartan envoys sent up to Alexander in Asia. — Untoward result of the defensive efforts of Greece — want of combination. — Position of parties at Athens during the struggle of Agis — reaction of the macedonizing party after his defeat. — Judicial contest between Æschines and Demosthenes. Preliminary circumstances as to the proposition of Ktesiphon, and the indictment by Æschines. — Accusatory harangue of Æschines, nominally against the proposition of Ktesiphon, really against the political life of Demosthenes. — Appreciation of Æschines, on independent evidence, as an accuser of Demosthenes. — Reply of Demosthenes — oration De Coronâ. — Funeral oration of extinct Grecian freedom. — Verdict of the Dikasts — triumph of Demosthenes — exile of Æschines. — Causes of the exile of Æschines — he was the means of procuring coronation for Demosthenes. — Subsequent accusation against Demosthenes, in the affair of Harpalus. — Flight of Harpalus to Athens — his previous conduct and relations with Athens. — False reports conveyed to Alexander, that the Athenians had identified themselves with Harpalus. — Circumstances attending the arrival of Harpalus at Sunium — debate in the Athenian assembly — promises held out by Harpalus — the Athenians seem at first favorably disposed towards him. — Phokion and Demosthenes both agree in dissuading the Athenians from taking up Harpalus. — Demand by Antipater for the surrender of Harpalus — the Athenians refuse to comply, but they arrest Harpalus and sequestrate his treasure for Alexander. — Demosthenes moves the decree for arrest of Harpalus, who is arrested, but escapes. — Conduct of Demosthenes in regard to the treasure of Harpalus — deficiency of the sum counted and realized, as compared with the sum announced by Harpalus. — Suspicions about this money — Demosthenes moves that the Areopagus shall investigate the matter — the Areopagites bring in a report against Demosthenes himself, with Demades and others, as guilty of corrupt appropriation. Demosthenes is tried on this charge, condemned, and goes into exile. — Was Demosthenes guilty of such corrupt appropriation? Circumstances as known in the case. — Demosthenes could not have received the money from Harpalus, since he opposed him from first to last. — Had Demosthenes the means of embezzling, after the money had passed out of the control of Harpalus? Answer in the negative. Accusatory speech of Deinarchus — virulent invective destitute of facts. — Change of mind respecting Demosthenes, in the Athenean public, in a few months. — Probable reality of the case, respecting the money of Harpalus, and the sentence of the Areopagus. — Rescript of Alexander to the Grecian cities, directing that the exiles should be recalled in each. — Purpose of the rescript — to provide partisans for Alexander in each of the cities. Discontents in Greece. — Effect produced in Greece, by the death of Alexander. The Athenians declare themselves champions of the liberation of Greece, in spite of Phokion’s opposition. — The Ætolians and many other Greeks join the confederacy for liberation — activity of the Athenian Leosthenes as General. — Athenian envoys sent round to invite co-operation from the various Greeks. — Assistance lent to the Athenian envoys by Demosthenes, though in exile. — He is recalled to Athens, and receives an enthusiastic welcome. — Large Grecian confederacy against Antipater — nevertheless without Sparta. Bœotia strongly in the Macedonian interest. Leosthenes with the confederate army marches into Thessaly. — Battle in Thessaly — victory of Leosthenes over Antipater, who is compelled to throw himself into Lamia, and await succors from Asia — Leosthenes forms the blockade of Lamia: he is slain. — Misfortune of the death of Leosthenes. Antiphilus is named in his place. Relaxed efforts of the Grecian army. — Leonnatus, with a Macedonian army from Asia, arrives in Thessaly. His defeat and death. — Antipater escapes from Lamia, and takes the command. — War carried on by sea between the Macedonian and Athenian fleets. — Reluctance of the Greek contingents to remain on long-continued service. The army in Thessaly is thinned by many returning home. — Expected arrival of Kraterus to reinforce Antipater. Relations between the Macedonian officers. — State of the regal family, and of the Macedonian generals and soldiery, after the death of Alexander. — Philip Aridæus is proclaimed king: the satrapies are distributed among the principal officers. — Perdikkas the chief representative of central authority, assisted by Eumenes of Kardia. — List of projects entertained by Alexander at the time of his death. The generals dismiss them as too vast. — Plans of Leonnatus and Kleopatra. — Kraterus joins Antipater in Macedonia with a powerful army. Battle of Krannon in Thessaly. Antipater gains a victory over the Greeks though not a complete one. — Antiphilus tries to open negotiations with Antipater, who refuses to treat except with each city singly. Discouragement among the Greeks. Each city treats separately. Antipater grants favorable terms to all, except Athenians and Ætolians. Antipater and his army in Bœotia — Athens left alone and unable to resist. Demosthenes and the other anti-Macedonian orators take flight. Embassy of Phokion, Xenokrates, and others to Antipater. — Severe terms imposed upon Athens by Antipater. — Disfranchisement and deportation of the 12,000 poorest Athenian citizens. — Hardship suffered by the deported poor of Athens — Macedonian garrison placed in Munychia. — Demosthenes, Hyperides, and others, are condemned to death in their absence. Antipater sends officers to track and seize the Grecian exiles. He puts Hyperides to death. — Demosthenes in sanctuary at Kalauria — Archias with Thracian soldiers comes to seize him — he takes poison, and dies. — Miserable condition of Greece — life and character of Demosthenes. — Dishonorable position of Phokion at Athens under the Macedonian occupation.