CIVIL WAR: FEUDALISM.—The final struggle of the two clans, the Hei or Taira, and the Gen or Minamoto, was in the naval battle of Dannoura, in 1185, which was followed by the extermination of the Taira. Yoritomo, the victor, was known as the Shogun after 1192. The supremacy of his clan gave way in 1219 to that of their adherents, the Hôjô family, who ruled the Shogun and the emperor both. The invasion of the Mongol Tartars failed, their great fleet being destroyed by a typhoon (1281). The Hôjô rule terminated, after a period of anarchy and civil war, in 1333. The "war of the chrysanthemums"—so called from the imperial emblem, the chrysanthemum—was between two rival Mikados, one in the North, and the other in the South (1336-1392). There ensued a period of confusion and internal war, lasting for nearly two centuries. Gradually there was developed a system of feudalism, in which the daimios, or lords of larger or smaller principalities, owned a dependence, either close or more loose, on the Shogun. But feudalism was not fully established until the days of the Tokugama dynasty, early in the seventeenth century.
III. INDIA.
MOHAMMEDAN STATES.—During the Middle Ages, India was invaded by a succession of Mohammedan conquerors. The first invasions were in the seventh and the early part of the eighth centuries. A temporary lodgment was effected in the province of Sind, on the north-west, in 711; but the Moslems were driven out by the Hindus in 750. The next invader was the Afghan sultan, Mahmud of Ghazim, a Turk, who is said to have led his armies seventeen times into India. From his time the Punjab, except for a brief interval, has been a Mohammedan province. The last of his line of rulers, Bahram, was conquered by the Afghan Allah-ud-din of Ghor (1152). Bahram's son fled to Lahore, but the Ghoride dynasty soon absorbed his dominion. One of the Ghoride rulers, Mohammed Ghori, the Shahab-ud-din of the Mohammedan writers, spread his dominion so that it reached from the Indus to the Brahmaputra. After his death, Kutab-ud-din, who had been a Turkish slave, became the founder of the "slave" dynasty (1206-1290), whose capital was Delhi. Allah-ud-din, by whom he was assassinated (1294), had a brilliant reign of twenty years, and conquered Deccan and Guzerat. Of the Togluk dynasty, which gained the throne in 1321, Mohammed Togluk (1325-1351) is said to have had the "reputation of one of the most accomplished princes and most furious tyrants that ever adorned or disgraced human nature." Desiring to remove the seat of empire to the Deccan, he compelled the inhabitants of Delhi to leave their old home, and to make the journey of seven hundred miles.
TAMERLANE.—Revolts in India made the triumph of Timour (Tamerlane) easy (1398). The Mongol leader sacked Delhi, and made a full display of his unrivaled ferocity. A half century of anarchy followed this invasion.
LITERATURE.—On Mediaeval History: The General Subject. (See list of works on Universal History, p. 16.) GIBBON'S Decline and Fall, etc.; "THE STUDENTS' GIBBON" (Smith, 1 vol.); FREEMAN, General Sketch of European History, and Historical Geography of Europe; DURUY, Histoire du Moyen Age, etc. (11th edition, 1882); Hallam. View of the State of Europe during the Middle Ages; Lavisse et Rambaud, Histoire Generale (vols. i.-iii.); Cunningham, Western Civilization (vol. ii); Lavisse, Political History of Europe; Dunham, History of Europe during the Middle Ages (4 vols.); BRYCE, The Holy Roman Empire; Putz and Arnold, Mediaeval History; E. A. FREEMAN, Historical Essays (series 1 and 3).
Works on Church History. The Church Histories of GIESELER, NEANDER;
MILMAN, History of Latin Christianity; ALZOG Catholic], Manual, etc. (3 vols. 1874-78); Hardwick (vol. i.,
Middle Ages); Students' History of the Church;
STANLEY'S Eastern Church; Fisher, History of the Christian
Church.
On Portions of the Mediaeval Period. Froissart, Chronicles, etc.; CURTEIS, History of the Roman Empire [395-800]; R. W. CHURCH, The Beginning of the Middle Ages; A. Thierry, Histoire d'Attila, etc., St. Jerome, etc., St. Jean Chrysostome, etc.; Church, Life of Anselm; MORISON, Life and Times of St. Bernard; Gfrörer, Pabst Gregorius VII. u. sein Zeitalter (1859); Bury, The Later Roman Empire (2 vols.); Oman, The Dark Ages (476-918); TOUT, The Empire and the Papacy (918-1272); Emerton, Mediaeval Europe (800-1300); Pears, The Fall of Constantinople; Sergeant, The Franks; MULLINGER, The Schools of Charles the Great, and the Restoration of Education in the 9th Century (1877); MONTALEMBERT, The Monks of the West (7 vols.); Sartorius, Gesch. des hanseatischen Bundes (3 vols.); Mombert, Charlemagne; Sabatier, Life of Francis of Assisi; Hasse, Leben Anselm; West, Alcuin; Hodgkin, Theodoric the Goth.
General Character of the Period. ROBERTSON, A View of the Progress of Society in Europe from the Subversion of the Roman Empire, etc. (Introduction to the History of Charles V.); Kingsley, C., The Roman and the Teuton: a Series of Lectures, etc.; SULLIVAN, Historical Causes and Effects; from the Fall of the Roman Empire A.D. 476 to 1517; Ozanam, A. F., History of Civilization in the Fifth Century; LAURENT, Études, etc. (vol vii.); Sir James Stephen, Ecclesiastical Essays; Adams, Civilization during the Middle Ages. Scott's novels,—Ivanhoe, The Talisman, Anne of Geierstein: they are historically much less correct pictures than his romances which relate to Scotland.
Particular Aspects of the Period. SAVIGNY, Gesch. d. römischen
Rechts im Mittelalter (7 vols.); Sismondi, Literature in the
South of Europe; Hallam, Introduction to the Study of
Literature, etc.; Geffchen, Church and State (2 vols.);
GUIZOT, History of the Origin of Representative Government in
Europe; Hecker, Epidemics of the Middle Ages;
J. E. THOROLD ROGERS, A History of Agriculture and Prices in
England [1259-1793] (4 vols., 1866); Amos, Roman Civil
Law; Jenks, Law and Politics in the Middle Ages; Gross,
The Guild Merchant; Oman, Art of War; VIOLLET-LE-DUC,
Annals of a Fortress; H. C. Lea, History of Sacerdotal
Celibacy, History of the Inquisition (3 vols.), and
Superstition and Force; LACROIX, Works on the Middle
Ages, richly illustrated (5 vols., London, 1880); Gautier,
Chivalry; Cornish, Chivalry; BULFINCH, Age of
Chivalry, or Legends of King Arthur; Legends of Charlemagne, or
Romance of the Middle Ages (2 vols.); COX AND JONES, Popular
Romances of the Middle Ages; NASSE, On the Agricultural
Community of the Middle Ages (1871); Roth,
Gesch. d. Beneficialwesens, etc.; Secretan, Essai sur la
Feodalité; Smith, T., English Guilds (1870); WILDA, Das
Gildenwesen im Mittelalter (1831); Seignobos, The Feudal
Regime.
Works on the Crusades. G. W. COX, The Crusades (1878); also,
art. Crusades in the Encycl. Brit.; Michaud, History
of the Crusades (3 vols.); VON SYBEL, The History and
Literature of the Crusades; Mills, A History of the
Crusades, etc. (2 vols.); Heeren, in Vermischte historische
Schriften (3 vols.); Procter's History of the Crusades;
Gray's Children's Crusade; Archer and Kingsford, The
Crusades.