On most of the Melanesian islands clearing is a modus acquirendi, which proves that there is still free land. In Fiji all land has been appropriated.
§ 8. [Landlords, tenants and labourers in Oceania] 328
Wherever in Oceania all land is held as property, there are nearly always people destitute of land 328.—The principal cause of this fact is probably the arbitrary conduct of chiefs and nobles, who appropriate the land of their enemies 329,—and even that belonging to their own subjects 331.—Condition of the lowest classes destitute of land. They perform the drudgery for the landlords, and are sometimes heavily oppressed 333.—In Melanesia there are no subjected lower classes, except in Fiji 338.—Subjected lower classes exist nearly always where all land is held as property, and are not found where there is still free land 341.—In some parts of Oceania the great depopulation has enabled many of the lower orders to obtain land 341.—The labouring classes of Oceania are not attached to the soil, but, being destitute of land, are obliged to apply to the landlords for employment 342.—Position of foreigners 342.—Over-population 343.—Skilled labourers are in a much better position and sometimes held in high esteem 343.—Oceanic labourers as compared with debtor-slaves: the former are compelled to work for others by circumstances, the latter by social regulations 344.—The state of labourers in Oceania would even be worse, but that they are employed in warfare 345.
§ 9. [Transition from serfdom to freedom in Western Europa] 346
Our theory must also hold with regard to civilized countries: as soon as all land is held as property slavery must disappear 347.—Wakefield’s opinion 347.—We shall not enter into a thorough investigation of this subject 347.—We limit our remarks to England and Germany 348.—Slavery in Western Europe 348.—Our argument applies to serfdom as well as slavery, for serfdom too is a system of compulsory labour 348.—Serfs and free tenants; Freizügigkeit 349.—Inaccurate use of the term “free tenants” 350.—Commutation of services for money not identical with transition from serfdom to freedom 351.—Hildebrand’s theory: natural economy leads to serfdom, money economy leads to freedom 352.—Why this theory is erroneous 354.—Hildebrand’s theory has been accepted by several writers 362. [[XIII]]
§ 10. [The rural classes of medieval England] 362
In the 11th century land was still abundant and servile labour prevailed; rent in the modern sense and free labourers dependent on wages were wanting 363.—During the 12th and 13th centuries the population increased and land became more scarce. Disafforesting controversy. Free tenants. Commutation. The landlords become mere receivers of rent instead of agricultural entrepreneurs. Free labourers 364.—The Black Death of 1349. Labour becomes scarce, much land goes out of tillage. Oppression of villeins by landlords. Assessment of wages. The stock and land lease 366.—1450–1550. Rise of sheep farming. Disastrous consequences: labourers thrown out of employment, commons and holdings of villeins inclosed and appropriated by the lords, depopulation, rise of pauperism 369.—Disappearance of serfdom. Copyhold 372.—Conclusion 372.
§ 11. [The rural classes of medieval Germany] 373
Merovingian period. Most of the land is covered with forests. A few slaves and lites; most cultivators are peasant proprietors 373.—Carolingian period. Much land is taken into cultivation, yet land remains abundant. Absorption of the free peasants by the great proprietors; rise of serfdom and manorial economy. “Freemen destitute of land” 374.—10th–12th centuries. Rise in the value of land. The whole of the population can still secure land to live upon. The class of peasant proprietors disappears. The use of labour becomes less. Free tenants arise, but free labourers are still wanting 375.—13th and 14th centuries. Extension of the arable area. More value than before is attached to uncultivated land. Rights of common restricted. Scarcity of meat. The use of labour continues diminishing. Lords set serfs free in their own interest. Bauernlegen. Free tenants. Obligations become territorial. Free servants and agricultural labourers 378.—15th century. Over-population. Reappearance of slavery (?) 380.—16th century. Evictions 382.—Serfdom in Eastern Germany. Conclusion 382.
§ 12. [Open and closed resources] 383