War and navy departments.—Owing to factional quarrels, it was not until January, 1782, that General Benjamin Lincoln was made secretary at war. No one was appointed for the department of marine, and the work was turned over to the already overburdened superintendent of finance. The office of agent of marine was created, and this Morris held from September, 1781, until November, 1784.
Department of foreign affairs.—The first secretary of foreign affairs was Robert R. Livingston of New York, a former member of the committee which formulated the Declaration of Independence and famous later as minister to France at the time of the Louisiana purchase. He held office from August, 1781, to June, 1783, being succeeded in 1784 by John Jay. The department as conducted under Livingston consisted of the secretary, two assistant secretaries, and a clerk.
Conclusion.—Thus during the stress of war national and state governments had come into existence. Necessity had forced the people to act and though the leaders at times groped blindly and took many a false step, the political capacity of the American people had asserted itself and triumphed. They profited by their experiences and showed themselves ready to cast aside useless institutions and try new ones which gave fair promise of success. A government of the people, for the people, and by the people had come into existence which challenged the doctrine that the sovereign ruled by right divine.
READINGS
Bolles, A.S., Financial History of the United States, 1774-1780; Bullock, C.J., Finances of the United States from 1775 to 1789; Channing, Edward, History of the United States, III, 431-462; Dewey, D.R., Financial History of the United States, 33-56; Foster, J.W., A Century of American Diplomacy, 1-40; Guggenheim, J.C., "The Development of the Executive Departments, 1775-1789," in J. Franklin Jameson, Essays in the Constitutional History of the United States in the Formative Period, 1775-1789; Hatch, L.C., Administration of the American Revolutionary Army; Hildreth, Richard, The History of the United States of America, III, 374-410; Learned, H.B., The President's Cabinet, 47-63; McLaughlin, A.C., The Confederation and the Constitution, 35-70; Paullin, C.O., The Navy of the American Revolution, 31-251; Small, A.W., "The Beginnings of American Nationality," in Johns Hopkins University, Studies in History and Political Science, 8th Series, Parts I and II; Sumner, W.G., The Financier and Finances of the American Revolution; Van Tyne, C.H., The American Revolution, 175-202; Hunt, G., The Department of State, 1-37.
Abenaki Indians, [257], [266];
war of, [313].
Abercromby, General James, in French and Indian War, [376], [377], [378].
Acadia, colonization, [85]-[86];
captured by England, restored to France, [86], [87];
during War of Spanish Succession, English expeditions against, [271];
conquest of, [272];
attacked by French during War of Austrian Succession, [364], [365];
French policy in, [366];
during French and Indian War, [374].
Acapulco, Mexico, commercial port, [86].
Acatic, Nueva Galicia, in the Mixton War, [40].
Accau, explorer in Minnesota with Father Hennepin, [100].
Ácoma, New Mexico pueblo, [46], [72], [73].
Adams, John, defence of British soldiers, [443];
in First Continental Congress, [452];
argues for Declaration of Independence, [479];
member of committee for drafting the Declaration, [479];
diplomacy in France and Holland, [532]-[533];
peace negotiations, [533]-[538].
Adams, Samuel, circular letter, [440]-[441];
trouble with Governor Bernard, [443];
the man of the town meeting, [445]-[446];
in First Continental Congress, [451];
on committee to draft Articles of Confederation, [550].
Adelantados, [54]-[55].
Administration of Justice Act, [450].
Admiralty, English, [182]-[183];
courts, [349].
Africa, early ideas concerning, [1]-[2];
Ptolemy's conception of, [1]-[2];
trade with desired, [5];
exploration of west coast, [5];
Prester, John, [5];
Sénégal and Gorée captured by English, [380];
Sénégal given to British by Peace of Paris, [382].
African Company, formed to break Dutch monopoly, [196].
Agriculture, in Spanish colonies, [21], [75];
in French Canada, [92], [93];
in French West Indies, [94]-[95];
in New England, [216]-[217], [330]-[331];
in the Middle English colonies, [120], [122], [124], [128], [332];
in the South, [333]-[335],
in the British West Indies, [339]-[341];
in Bermudas, [130];
in Dutch colonies, [169], [170], [171], [173].
Aguas Calientes, [58], [59];
mines of, [58].
Aguayo, Marquis of, expedition to Texas, [296]-[297].
Aguilar, Marcos de, governor in Mexico, [48].
Aijado Indians, [243].
Ailly, Pierre d', author of Imago Mundi, [2], [7].
Aix-la-Chapelle, Peace of, [366].
Alabama Indians, [251], [270].
Alabama River, [62].
Alamance, battle of the, [415].
Alarcón, Hernando de, explores Colorado River, [45].
Alarcón, Martin de, governor of Texas, and of Coahuila, [294]-[295].
Albany, [332].
Albany Congress, [371], [411].
Albemarle, Duke of. See Monk.
Albermarle district, settlement, [207];
population, [211];
Culpeper rebellion, [211].
Alberoni, [279], [359].
Albórnoz, royal contador of New Spain, [48].
Albuquerque, New Mexico, founding of, [290].
Alburquerque, Portuguese viceroy in India, 24.
Alcalá, University of, [76].
Alcaldes, [14], [34], [55].
Alcaldía Mayor, administrative district, [59].
Aleutian Islands, Russian fur trade, [388].
Alexander, Pillars of, [1].
Alexander VI, Pope, assignation of discoveries between Spain and
Portugal, [11].
Alexander, Sir William, grant on Long Island, [150].
Algonquin Indians, friendly to French, [257];
a barrier to English expansion, [414].
Alibamon, judicial department of Louisiana, [279].
Alleghany Mountains, Spanish explorations in, 1566-1568, [64];
Spanish trade in, [211];
French and English traders cross, [101]-[102];
English traders cross, [211], [258], [367]. [369];
in the French and Indian War, [372]-[374], [378];
Proclamation of 1763, [404], [411];
settlers cross, [413];
a barrier to settlement, [414];
in the American Revolution, [512].
Allen, Ethan, [462].
Allouez, Jesuit missionary in New France, [96], [97], [101].
Alva, Duke of, [52].
Alvarado, Pedro de, lieutenant of Cortés, [33], [36];
alcalde mayor of City of Mexico, [34];
conquest of Guatemala and San Salvador, [37]-[38];
claim to Cíbola, [44];
explorations in Peru and the South Sea, [46]-[47];
governor and captain-general of Guatemala, [49];
death, [47], [49].
Amadas, Philip, takes possession of Roanoke Island, [110].
Amazon Island, Cortés seeks, [37].
Amazons, kingdom of, sought by Raleigh, [110].
Amherst, Jeffrey, English general, [377], [378], [379], [381], [409];
plan of defence of British New World possessions, [403]-[404];
governor-general of Canada, [419].
Amichel, province of, [26], [37];
map showing, [43].
André, Major John, hanged as a spy, [512].
Andros, Edmund, governor of New York, [197], [262], [263];
governor-general of the Dominion of New England, [194];
overthrow, [194]-[195].
Anglican Church, in the eighteenth century, [337]-[338].
Anguilla, Island, government, [206].
Anian, Strait of, [24], [25], [67]-[68], [72]. See the Strait of Anian.
Annapolis Royal, [272].
Anne of Austria, regent of France, [80].
Anne, Queen of England, colonial policy, [350]-[352].
Anson, Commodore George, attacks Spanish possessions, [363];
admiral in French and Indian War, [377].
Anticosti Island, [82], [420].
Antigua, settled by English, [133], [252];
incorporated with Leeward Islands, [206];
population, [340].
Anza, Juan Bautista, opens route from Arizona to California, [391];
leads colony from Sonora to San Francisco, [391];
governor of New Mexico, explores in Colorado, [292].
Apache Indians, [45]:
enslavement of, [23];
hostility, [285];
wars with, [298], [305], [401];
missions for, [299].
Apalachee (Apalachen), Indian settlement, [41], [42], [98];
missions, [247], [253], [254], [270];
revolt of, [270].
Apalachicola Indians, [269].
Appeals, [351]-[352].
Appointments, [352].
Arabs, theories of concerning geography, [1]-[2].
Aragon, kingdom of, [13]-[14].
Argall, Captain Samuel, expedition against French settlements, [86], [136].
Aricara Indians, [283].
Arika Indians, alliance with English, [270].
Arispe, capital of Provincias Internas, [387].
Aristotle, his conception of the world, [1].
Arizona, [72], [236];
Kino's explorations in, [302];
mining excitement at Arizonac, [304];
Keller and Sedelmayr in, [304];
land route to California, [391].
See Pimería Alta, Sonora.
Arkansas region, De Soto and Moscoso in, [42];
Oñate in, [73];
judicial department of Louisiana, [280];
French traders in, [283]-[286];
English traders in, [102], [400];
Tonty's fort in, [100], [102];
under Spanish rule, [400].
See La Harpe, Du Tisné, Tonty.
Arkansas Post (Fort Carlos III), [398].
Arkansas River (Napestle River), [42], [73], [100], [102], [283]-[285];
Spanish expeditions to, [291].
Arlington, Earl of, proprietary grant in Virginia, [185];
interest in Hudson's Bay Company, [213].
Armada, "the Invincible," defeat of, [52]-[53], [105].
Arnold, Benedict, operations at Ticonderoga and Crown Point, [462];
invasion of Canada, [471];
at Valcour Island, [487]-[488];
in campaign against Burgoyne, [495]-[499];
treason, [511]-[512];
in the British army, [530].
Arriola, Andrés de, founds Pensacola, [275].
Arroyo Hondo, boundary between Texas and Louisiana, [300].
Arteaga, expedition up Pacific coast, [395].
Arthur, Gabriel, on Tennessee River, 1673, [211].
Articles of Confederation, confederation movement, [549];
work of the confederation committee, [550];
adoption of the articles, [550]-[551];
provisions, [551]-[555];
weaknesses, [553].
Aruba Island, settled by the Dutch, [167].
Asia, classical ideas regarding, [1];
early contact with America, [2];
visits of Polo, [3];
trade route to, [5];
search for northwest passage to, [106], [108], [164], [213];
Portuguese trading settlements in China and Japan, [24];
China a market for Russian trade, [388].
Asiento of 1713, The, [273], [289].
Asinai (Hasinai, Tejas, Texas), Indians, [251].
Assemblies, control of the elections and purse, [352];
increasing power, [357], [426]-[427].
Association, the, adopted by the First Continental Congress, [455];
enforcement, [458], [466]-[467];
an act of sovereignty, [539].
Association for the Defense of the Protestant Religion, [189].
Atondo y Antillón, Admiral, attempt to colonize Baja California,
241-[242].
Atzcapotzalco, Aztec center, Mexico, [28].
Aubry, in command in Louisiana after cession to Spain, [396]-[397].
Audiencia, of Santo Domingo, [20];
of the Confines of Panamá and Nicaragua, [50];
of Guatemala, [50];
of Havana, [398];
of Mexico (New Spain),
creation of, [38], [48];
friction with Cortés, [42];
powers, [48];
composition, [48];
replacement of, [49];
Second Audiencia, [49];
of Manila, [68];
of Nueva Galicia (Guadalajara), [55];
expeditions sent out by, [55]-[56], [387];
of Panamá, [49], [50];
of Nicaragua, [50].
Augusta, Georgia, founded, [316];
fur traders of, [369];
evacuated by British, [529].
Austin, Ann, [189].
Austria, [359]-[360].
Avalon, [125].
Avalos, lieutenant of Cortés, [36], [37].
Ávila, Alonso de, envoy for Cortés to Audiencia of Santo Domingo,
and to the court of Charles V, [34].
Aviño, mine of, [56].
Axacan (Virginia), [117].
Ayllón, colony in Carolina, [26].
Ays, Florida, settlement at, [64].
Ayscue, Sir George, expedition to West Indies and Virginia, [153].
Azcué, Fernando de, expedition across Rio Grande, [248].
Azilia, project for colonizing Georgia, [315].
Aztecs, arrival in Valley of Mexico, [27]-[28];
development of power, [28];
discontent of subject peoples, [33];
revolt against, [33];
overthrown by Cortés, [33];
limits of Aztec conquest, [39].
Bacon, Roger, his conception of geography, [2].
Bacon's Rebellion, [185]-[187].
Baffin, William, discovers Baffin Bay, [213].
Bahama Channel, route of Spanish treasure ships, [62], [64].
Bahama Islands, [10];
enslavement of Indians on, [23];
settlement, [152], [206].
Bahía (Brazil), captured by Dutch West India Company, [252].
Baja California. See California, Lower.
Balboa, Vasco Nuñez de, [28], [29], [42];
discovery of the Pacific, [25];
executed by Pedrarias, [29].
Balearic Isles, [13].
Baltimore, Lord. See Calvert.
Bank, of England, [351];
of North America, [554];
of Pennsylvania, [554].
Baptists, in Rhode Island, [220];
in West New Jersey, [226];
in South Carolina, [231].
Barbados, occupied by the English, [132], [252];
attached to the Windward Islands government, [206];
unrest, [207];
migrations, [207];
furnishes settlers for South Carolina, [208], [210];
trade with South Carolina, [210];
influence upon South Carolina, [230], [231];
social and economic conditions in the eighteenth century, [340].
Barbuda, Island, [206], [252].
Barcelona, [10];
county of, [13].
Barker, English freebooter, [66].
Barlowe, Arthur, expedition of 1585, [110].
Barroto, seeks La Salle's colony, [249].
Barrowists, [135].
Bartram, botanist and traveler, cited, [408].
Bastidas, Spanish explorer, [24].
Baton Rouge, captured by Gálvez, [515].
Bay of the Bidayes (Galveston Bay), visited by La Harpe, [283].
Bay of Chaleurs, [82].
Bay of Espíritu Santo (Matagorda Bay), [249], [297].
Bay of Juan Ponce, [64].
Bay of St. Bernard, [283].
Beaumarchais, Pierre Augustin Caron de, assists United States
during Revolution, [506].
Behaim's globe, [7].
Bellefeuille, explores Tennessee River, [102].
Beltrán, Fray Bernaldino, expedition to New Mexico, [72]. See Espejo.
Bemis Heights, first battle of, [497];
second battle of, [498].
Benavides, Fray Alonso de, Franciscan Missionary, [243];
report on New Mexico in 1630, [243].
Benbow, John, English vice-admiral, victories in West Indies, [268].
Bennington, Battle of, [495]-[496].
Bergen, New Jersey, [198].
Bering, Vitus, [388];
explores American coast, [388].
Berkeley, John, Lord Berkeley, receives West New Jersey, [198];
sells territory to the Quakers, [200];
Carolina proprietor, [208].
Berkeley, Sir William, governor of Virginia, [159];
struggle with the Commonwealth, [160];
begins second administration, [183];
abuses in administration, [184];
Bacon's rebellion, [185]-[187];
expedition to the West, [211];
Carolina proprietor, [208].
Bermuda Islands, visited by English, [118];
charters of 1612 and 1614, [120];
settlement, [130], [251];
population, [130];
economic importance, [130];
government, [130];
during Puritan Revolution, [152];
Somers Island Company dissolved, [206];
a crown colony, [206];
migration of settlers, [206];
Scotch migration, [324].
Bernard, Francis, Governor of Massachusetts, [440], [441], [442]-[443].
Béthencourt, de, Norman voyager to the Canaries, [4].
Biencourt, French official in Acadia, [85]-[86].
Bienville, Governor of Louisiana: first administration, [276];
under the Compagnie d'Occident, [279]-[280], [284];
royal governor, [280]-[281].
Bigot, intendant in Canada, [368], [375].
Bill Williams Fork (River in Arizona), Farfán on, [73];
Sedelmayr on, [304].
Bills of credit, [544]-[545].
Biloxi, Mississippi, founded by French, [267], [276]:
settlement moved to Mobile Bay, [276];
judicial department of Louisiana, [279].
Bimini, De León seeks, [40].
Black Code of Louisiana, The, [280], [398].
Blair, William, [229].
Blathwayt, William, secretary of Lords of Trade, [182].
Block, Adrian, Dutch trader, [165].
Blommaert, Samuel, Patroon, [170];
in Sweden, [175].
Board of Admiralty, created, [543].
Board of Trade, [346]-[347], [348], [354].
Board of War and Ordnance, [543].
Bobadilla, rule in West Indies, [17].
Bodega y Quadra, expeditions up Pacific coast, [395];
discovers Bodega Bay, [395].
Boisbriant, French commander in Illinois, [284].
Bonhomme Richard, sea-fight with the Serapis, [518]-[519].
Book of the Tartars, [3].
Boone, Daniel, on Watauga River,413;
effort to colonize Kentucky, [416];
opens "Wilderness Road," [417].
Boonesborough, Kentucky, founded, [417].
Boscawen, English admiral, [377], [380].
Bosque, Fernando del, expedition across Rio Grande, [248].
Boston, settled, [142];
population, [331];
resolutions against sending troops, [442];
Massacre, [443];
committee of correspondence, [446];
Tea Party, [447]-[448];
Port Act, [449];
siege, [461], [471].
Bourgmont, on Missouri and Kansas rivers, 1724, [284].
Boyano, Spanish explorer in North Carolina, 1567, [64].
Braddock, Major General Edward, campaign and defeat, [371]-[372].
Bradford, New Jersey, [199].
Bradford, Governor William, at Scrooby, [137];
History of Plymouth Plantation, [137];
elected governor of Plymouth, [139].
Bradstreet, English lieutenant-colonel, expedition against Fort
Frontenac, [378].
Brandenburgers, in the West Indies, [253].
Brandywine, Battle of, [499]-[500].
Brant, Iroquois chief, [515].
Brazil, Portugal's claims to, [11], [24];
French attempts to colonize, [84], [251];
Dutch colonization in, [166];
Brazos River, Texas, Coronado on, 1541, [45];
De Mézières on, [401].
Bréboeuf, French Jesuit, work among the Hurons, [88].
Breed's Hill, [461].
Brewster, William, at Scrooby, [137].
British East India Company, [70].
Brooke, Lord, interest in the Caribbean, [133];
holdings in Connecticut Valley, [149];
obtains lands in New Hampshire, [157].
Brooklyn, captured by the British, [484].
Brownists, [135].
Bruselas (Costa Rica), founding of, [31].
Bucarely, Viceroy of New Spain, 1771-1779;
sends explorers to Northern Pacific, [395].
Buddhist priest, supposed visit to America, [499] A.D., [2].
Buen Aire Island, settled by Dutch, [167].
Buffalo Plains, Spanish expeditions to, [72], [73].
Bunker Hill, Battle of, [461]-[462].
Burgoyne, General John, at Boston, [441];
New York campaign, [493]-[499].
Burke, Edmund, on conciliation, [456].
Burlington, New Jersey, body of laws, [201];
description of, [225]-[226].
Burma, Portuguese in, [24].
Bustamente y Tagle, expedition down Arkansas River against
Comanches, [291].
Bute Ministry, policy of, [429]-[430].
Button, Sir Thomas, explores Hudson Bay, [213].
Buzzard's Bay, settled by Pilgrims, [139].
Byllynge, Edward, proprietor West Jersey, [201], [202].
Bylot, explores Baffin Bay, [213].
Byng, English admiral, defeats Spanish fleet, [359].
Byron, Commodore John, in American Revolution, [510].
Cabildo, Spanish town council, [20];
membership and functions, [20].
Cabinet, development in the reign of Anne, [350]-[351];
system, [353].
Cabo del Engaño, discovered by Ulloa, [44].
Cabot, John, explorations of, [26], [105]-[106].
Cabral, Portuguese explorer, [24].
Cabrillo, Juan Rodríguez, explores Pacific coast, [47].
Cacaxtle Indians, in Texas, expedition against, [248].
Cadereyta, Nuevo León, founded, [247].
Cadillac, Lama the, founder of Detroit and of Louisiana, governor
of Louisiana, [277]-[278], [282].
Cadodacho Indians, La Harpe visits, [283].
Cahokia, captured by Clark, [514].
Cakchiquels, Indians of Guatemala, conquest of, [38].
Calderón, Bishop of Cuba, visits Florida in 1674, [254].
Cale, province sought by De Soto, [41].
Calender Stone, Aztec, [27].
Calicut, voyage to, [5].
California (Lower and Upper): expedition of Cabrillo and Ferrelo, [47];
on route of Manila trade, [68];
raids of Drake and Cavendish, [70];
new explorations, Cermeño and Vizcaíno, [70]-[71];
Oñates expedition by land, [73];
insular theory of California geography, [73], [241].
California, Lower: Cortés's colony in, [42];
Ulloa's voyage round the Peninsula, [44];
seventeenth century efforts to occupy, [240]-[242];
pearl fisheries, [240];
Iturbi's voyage, [240];
later attempts, [240]-[241];
Kino and Atondo, [242];
Jesuit occupation, [306]-[308];
Salvatierra and companions, [306];
expulsion of the Jesuits, [307], [386];
Franciscans in, [386];
Gálvez in, [386];
Dominicans in, [391].
California, Upper: threatened by Russia, [388];
derision of Spain to occupy, [388];
the Portolá expedition, [389];
Junípero Serra, [389];
San Diego and Monterey founded, [389];
plans for expansion, [389];
map, [390];
a land route from Arizona, [391];
San Francisco founded, [391];
communication with New Mexico attempted, [391];
explorations of Garcés, Escalante, and Domínguez, [392];
Neve governor, [392];
founding of pueblos San José and Los Angeles, [392];
the halfway post at Yuma and the Yuma massacre, [393]-[394];
Santa Bárbara and San Buenaventura founded, [394];
northern explorations by sea, [394]-[395].
Calvert, Cecilius, second Lord Baltimore, [126];
receives proprietary grant of Maryland, [126];
his powers and rights, [127], [128].
Calvert, Charles, proprietor of Maryland, [188]-[189].
Calvert, George, stockholder in Virginia Company, [125];
early history, [125];
becomes Baron of Baltimore, [125];
application for Virginia grant, [125]-[126];
death, [126].
Calvert, Leonard, governor of Maryland, [129].
Calvinism, in France, [78];
in New York, [222].
Cambridge Agreement, [142].
Cambridge, settled, [145].
Camden, fighting at, [525]-[526].
Campbell Colonel William, at King's Mountain, [527].
Canada, search for Northwest passage, Frobisher, Davis, Gilbert,
60, [108]-[109];
early French voyages, [81]-[82];
Acadia settled, [85]-[86];
St. Lawrence Valley exploration, settlements, fur trade,
seigniories, [86]-[93];
Newfoundland fisheries, [106];
Hudson's Bay Company, [212]-[214], [423];
struggle for fur country, [257]-[261];
in Wars of English and Spanish Successions, [262]-[267], [271]-[273];
Vérendrye in the West, [287]-[288];
in War of Austrian Succession, [364]-[366];
in French and Indian War, [374]-[383];
under British rule, [403]-[406], [419]-[424];
the Montreal traders, [421]-[424];
during American Revolution, [450], [462], [467], [470];
Loyalists, [421], [472]-[476]; [493], [538].
See Acadia, Colonial administration, English colonies, French
colonies, French and Indian War, fur trade, Hudson's Bay Company,
Jesuits, Loyalists, Montreal, Northwest Company, Quebec, the
intercolonial wars.
Canada Company, [141].
Canadian River, Oñate expedition to, [73].
Canary Islands, discovery of, [3];
other visits to, [4];
acquired by Spain, [8];
factor in trans-Atlantic navigation, [8];
natives of as colonists in Florida and Texas, [255], [298].
Cancer, Fray Luis, expedition to Florida, [61].
Cano, Francisco del, explorer in Coahuila, [59].
Cape Ann, settlement, [140].
Cape Blanco, California, [5], [71].
Cape Bojador, [2].
Cape Breton Island, [273], [365]-[383];
siege and defence of Louisbourg, [364]-[365].
Cape Fear, [26].
Cape Fear River, Ayllón at, [41].
Cape Finisterre, battles off, [365].
Cape Gaspé, [82], [87].
Cape of Good Hope, discovery of, [5];
trade route to Far East, [5].
Cape Horn, discovery of, [165].
Cape Mendocino, California on route of Manila galleon, [70].
Cape Nun, early voyages to, [3]-[4].
Cape St. Vincent, [4].
Cape Verde, reached by Portuguese, [5].
Cape Verde Islands, discovery of, [5].
Capuchins, in Louisiana, [280].
Carabajal, Luis de, governor of Kingdom of New León, [60];
expeditions and colonies, [60]-[61];
arrest and condemnation, [61].
Caria, Island of, [25].
Caribs, enslaved, [23];
De León's war against, [40].
Cárdenas, discovers Grand Canyon, [45].
Cardona, Thomas, monopoly of pearl fishing, [240].
Caribbean Sea. See West Indies, Lesser Antilles, and
individual islands.
Carleton, General Sir Guy, [487], [488].
Carlisle Commission, [509].
Carlisle, Lord, receives grant in the Caribbean, [132].
Carlos III, attitude toward American Revolution, [515].
Carmelites, in Louisiana, [280].
Carolinas, Gordillo and Quexos in Chicora, [26];
Ayllón's colony of San Miguel in, [40]-[41];
De Soto in North Carolina Piedmont, [42];
attempt of De Luna and Villafañe at Santa Elena (Port Royal), [61]-[62];
Ribaut's Huguenot colony at Port Royal, [62], [84];
Spanish post at Santa Elena, [64];
exploration of Pardo and Boyano, [64];
missions at Santa Elena and Orista, [64]-[65];
Menéndez's expeditions up coast, [65];
traders in, [102];
Carolina traders cross the Alleghanies, [102];
grant to Sir Robert Heath, [207];
settlement of Albemarle district, [207];
charters of 1663 and 1665, [207]-[208];
the proprietors, [208];
Locke's constitution, [208];
settlements, [208], [254];
effect on Spanish frontier policy, [254];
development of the colony, [210];
unrest at Charleston, [210]-[211];
the Albemarle region, [211];
Culpeper's rebellion, [211];
under William III, [346];
separation, [313];
Yamassee War, [314];
overthrow of proprietors, [314]-[315].
See also Albemarle District, North Carolina, South Carolina.
Carpenters' Hall, [452].
Carpini, John de Plano, author of Book of the Tartars, [3].
Carrero, Alonso, explorer in Central America, [32].
Cartagena, despoiled in War of English Succession, [262];
bombarded and besieged in War of Jenkins' Ear, [361], [363].
Carteret, Sir George, grant in the Jerseys, [198];
obtains East New Jersey, [198]-[199];
Carolina proprietor, [208];
interest in Hudson's Bay Company, [213].
Carteret, Philip, governor of East New Jersey, [198]-[199].
Cartier, Jacques, in the St. Lawrence, [81]-[82];
map showing explorations, [83].
Carver, Governor John, goes to Leyden, [137];
removal to Plymouth, [137];
confirmed as governor, [138];
death, [139].
Casa de Contratación, [19];
duties and organization, [19];
subordinate to Council of Indies, [20].
Casas Grandes (Nueva Vizcaya), [56], [242].
Casco Bay settlement, [140];
submits to Massachusetts, [158];
attacks on, [262], [263].
Castañeda, explores coast of Central America, [29].
Castile, kingdom of, [13]-[14];
ownership of Spanish America, [19].
Castilla del Oro, province of, settlement, organization, and
jurisdiction of, [28]-[29].
Catalonia, [13].
Catawba Indians, hostile to French of Louisiana, [270], [369].
Catherine de Medici, [78].
Catherine II, of Russia, the League of Armed Neutrals, [519].
Catholic Church, [13]-[14];
Charles V protector of, [16];
its agencies against the Reformation, [52];
leaders, [78], [79];
in Maryland, [128], [229];
in New York, [223];
in Canada under British rule, [420].
See California, Canada, Louisiana, Florida, New Mexico,
Texas, Missions.
Catholic League, The, [79].
Cattle industry, in Spanish colonies, [19], [21], [58], [75], [240];
in the English colonies, [310], [334].
Cavendish, Thomas, English freebooter, [70];
circumnavigation of the globe, [108].
Cavelier, Abbé Jean, brother of La Salle, urges colonization of
Louisiana, [275].
Cavelier, Robert, sieur de la Salle. See La Salle.
Caymán Islands, granted to Providence Island Company, [133].
Cebú, Philippines, settled by Spaniards, [68].
Cedros (Cerros) Islands, [71], [307].
Celaya, Mexico, founded, [59].
Cempoalla, Cortés at, [33].
Central America, exploration of eastern coasts, [23]-[26];
Maya and Nahua civilizations, [26]-[28];
Castilla del Oro, [28]-[29];
Balboa and Pedrarias, [29];
Panamá founded, [29];
discovery of the Pacific and South Sea exploration, [29]-[31];
map, [30];
conquest of Costa Rica and Nicaragua, [31];
of Guatemala, San Salvador and Honduras, [31], [37], [38], [39];
of Yucatán, [38];
exploration of the San Juan River, [31]-[32];
the dukedom of Veragua, [32];
continued struggle, [32].
Cermeño, Sebastián Rodríguez, explores California coast, [71].
Cerro de la Plata, Texas, [248].
Ceuta, Moorish stronghold, [4].
Ceylon, visited by the Polos, [3];
acquired by Portugal, [24].
Ceynos, oidor of New Spain, [49].
Chagres, Central America, captured by England, [361].
Chalchuites, mine of, [56].
Challons, Henry, voyage of 1606, [116].
Champlain, Samuel de, explorations, [85], [87];
associated with Sieur de Monts, [86];
sends expedition in search of Northwest Passage, [88];
last days, [88].
Chamuscado, Francisco Sánchez, expedition to New Mexico, [72].
Chancellor, Richard, expedition to Russia, [106].
Chapuis, Jean, expedition to New Mexico, [286].
Chapultepec, Mexico, [28].
Charcas (San Luis Potosí), Mexico, founded, [59].
Charles I, of England, policy of, [112]-[114];
the tobacco business, [124]-[125];
end of personal rule, [152].
Charles II, of England, grant to the Duke of York, [178];
restoration, [179];
general policy, [179];
navigation acts, [180]-[181];
policy of imperial defense, [181];
fiscal system, [181];
orders return of Governor Berkeley, [187];
attitude toward Massachusetts, [189]-[190];
grants charters to Connecticut and Rhode Island, [190];
royal commissioners, [190]-[191];
sends Edward Randolph, [192]-[193];
annulment of Massachusetts charter, [193];
royal commission to the colonies, [197];
issues charter to Hudson's Bay Company, [213]-[214].
Charles III, of Spain, reforms of, [384]-[385].
See Carlos II.
Charles V, emperor, [14], [16];
his inheritance, [16];
elected Holy Roman Emperor, [16];
his European contests, [16];
expansion of New Spain during his reign, [16];
emigration policy, [21];
sale of Spain's claim to the Moluccas, [46];
abdication, [52].
Charleston, South Carolina,
founded, [210], [254];
social conditions, [231];
Spanish expedition against, [270];
commerce, [335];
defense against British, [471];
captured by Clinton, [524]-[525].
Charlestown, Massachusetts, settled, [142].
Charles Town, South Carolina, [208].
Charlotiana, proposed colony of, [411].
Charlotte Bay, Menéndez at, [64].
Chauvin, French fur trader, associated with de Monts, [85].
Charnisay, struggle with LaTour in Acadia, [86].
Cherokee Indians, unite against France, [270];
French influence, [314];
Cuming's Mission, [315];
attack English during French and Indian War, [369], [378]-[379];
cede lands, [412], [417];
retard expansion, [414];
war during the Revolution, [512]-[513].
Cherry Valley, [514].
Chesapeake Bay, Menéndez's plans for, [64];
Jesuit mission at, [65].
Chester, Governor of West Florida, [407].
Chiametla, Mexico, Ibarra at, [56].
Chiaha, Georgia, Boyano at, [64].
Chiapas, Mexico, population in 1574, [75].
Chichén Itza, Maya ruins, [27].
Chickasaw Indians, French alliance with, [276];
French war with, [281];
hostile to English, [403], [407], [414];
on the British side during Revolution, [514].
Chickasaw Trail,
[211]-[212], [369].
Chico, conquistador in Jalisco, [36], [37].
Chicora, region in Carolina, attempt to colonize, [26], [40]-[41].
Chihuahua, Mexico, [41], [56];
industrial development, [58];
advance of settlement in, [242];
Missions established, [242];
discovery of the mines, [289];
advance down the Conchos Valley, [290];
capital of the Interior Provinces, [387].
Chile, trade with, [66].
China, early contact with America, [2];
travelers' tales of, [3];
Portuguese trading settlements in, [24];
search for northwest passage to, [82], [88], [100];
market for Russian traders, [388].
Chipewyan Indians, trade with Hudson's Bay Company, [214].
Chirinos, veedor of New Spain, [48].
Choctaw Indians, hostile to French, [280], [281];
French smuggling among, [406];
at war with Chickasaws, [407];
retard English expansion, [414];
on the British side during Revolution, [514].
Cholula, Mexico, Cortés at, [33].
Chozas, Father Pedro, Franciscan Missionary in Georgia, [65].
Christian, Col. William, [513].
Christiansen, Dutch navigator, [165].
Church, Benjamin, expedition against Acadia, [271].
Cíbola (New Mexico), search for, [42]-[46].
Cipango. See Japan.
Claiborne, William, trouble with Maryland, [128].
Clarendon, Earl of (Edward Hyde), Carolina proprietor, [208].
Clark, Daniel, speculator at Natchez, [408].
Clark, George Rogers, conquers Northwest, [514];
assists Spanish commander at St. Louis, [516].
Clamorgan, fur trader at St. Louis, explores Missouri River, [402].
Clifford, English freebooter, [66].
Clinton, Gen. Sir. H., at siege of Boston, [461];
at Charleston, [471];
captures forts on the Hudson, [498];
in command of British forces in America, [509];
evacuation of Philadelphia, [509];
Monmouth, [509]-[510];
reinforces Newport, [510];
seizes points on the Hudson, [511];
orders raids, [511];
orders evacuation of Newport, [511];
concentration at New York, [511];
blockades Newport, [511];
correspondence with Arnold, [511];
captures Charleston, [524]-[525].
Coahuila, province of, Vaca crosses, [41];
Tlascaltecan Indians used as colonists in, [60];
founding of, [248];
development, [248]-[249], [292],387;
map, [250].
Coça, Alabama, Spanish colony at, [61], [62].
See Coosa.
Coddington, William, Rhode Island
magistrate, [148];
governor, [159].
Codrington, English general, attacks Guadeloupe, 1703, [268].
Codrington College, [339].
Coíba, Island of, Balboa granted, [29].
Colbert, controller general of finances of France, [81];
policy with regard to New France, [81], [94].
Coligny, Admiral, Huguenot leader, [52], [78]-[79].
Colima, founded, [37].
College of New Jersey, [339].
Colleton, James, governor of Carolinas, [211].
Colleton, Sir John, interest in Carolinas, [207]-[208].
Colonial administration: Spanish, beginnings in the West Indies,
8, [19]-[23];
establishment of the viceroyalty of New Spain, [47]-[50];
under Philip II, [52]-[55];
the merchant fleets, [66];
administrative subdivisions, [75]-[76];
frontier administration in the [17]th century, [234]-[237];
Jesuit control in Lower California, [306]-[307];
reorganization of New Spain after 1763;
the reforms of Charles III and Gálvez, [384]-[388];
in Louisiana, [397]-[398];
French, Colbert's policy, [81];
in Canada, [85], [87], [90];
reorganization, [91];
Talon, [92];
seignorial grants, [92];
in West Indies, [93]-[96];
in Louisiana, [276];
the Company of the Indies, [278]-[280];
the royal governors, [280]-[281];
English, policy of the Early Stuarts, [113]-[114];
regulation of tobacco industry, [122]-[125];
during the Commonwealth and the Protectorate, [153];
under the Later Stuarts, [179]-[183];
William III's reorganizations, [343]-[350];
under Anne, [350]-[352];
under the Whigs, [353]-[357];
organization of new possessions after French and Indian War,
403-[423];
on the Eve of the American Revolution, [425]-[426];
Dutch, in New Netherlands, [166], [167]-[168];
patroon system, [169]-[170];
struggle for popular rights, [172]-[173].
Colonial Currency Act, [431].
Colorado River, exploration of, [45];
Grand Canyon discovered, [45];
Kino, Keller, Sedelmayr, and Consag at, [302], [304].
Colorado, State; Spanish explorers in, [291]-[292].
Columbia River, discovered by Heçeta, [395].
Columbus, Bartholomew, in England, [7].
Columbus, Christopher, early life, [7];
sojourn in Spain, [7];
commission, [8];
discovery of America, [8]-[10];
map showing voyages, [9];
sojourn in West Indies, and return to Europe, [10];
rule in West Indies, [16]-[19];
second and third voyages, [16]-[17];
charges against, [17];
fourth voyage, [24];
attempted colony on Veragua coast, [28].
Columbus, Diego, rule and work of in West Indies, [17], [20].
Comanche Indians, barrier to French expansion, [285];
treaty with, [286];
French advance through country of, [286].
Commerce and Trade, with Africa, [5];
with Asia, [5];
Portuguese in the East, [24];
slave trade, [5], [23], [107], [196], [197], [253], [385];
of Spanish Colonies, [8], [16]-[19], [29], [46], [47], [75], [118], [164], [166],
234, [251]-[252], [268], [269], [273], [292], [307], [359], [384], [398], [400];
Casa de Contratación, [19]-[20];
trading voyages, [23]-[24];
San Juan River route, [31]-[32];
route of fleets, [62], [64];
Spanish monopoly, [65]-[66];
freebooters, [62], [66]-[67], [70];
Puerto Bello, [32], [360], [361];
Vera Cruz port, [66];
the Manila galleon, [66]-[70], [307];
Acapulco port, [86];
pearl fisheries, [68], [71], [240], [243]-[244];
the Pichilingues, [240];
reforms of Chas. III, [385];
Louisiana trade, [398];
Spanish horse trade, [400];
French West India Company, [91]-[92], [94], [96];
Company of St. Christopher, [93], [94];
Company of Hundred Associates, [87], [90];
Company of New France, [91];
Company of Isles of America, [94];
Compagnie du Nord, [273];
Crozat's grant, [276]-[278];
Compagnie d'Occident, [279]-[284];
Dutch commercial expansion, [164]-[166];
in Java, [164];
in Guiana, [166]-[167], [251]-[252];
Dutch East India Company, [164]-[165];
Dutch West India Company, [166], [252];
in New Netherlands, [173]-[174];
Danes in West Indies, [253];
Russian trade in China, [388];
Early English trade expansion, [105]-[107];
East India Company, [70], [108], [447];
Muscovy Company, [106];
Eastland Company, [108];
Venetian Company, [107];
Newfoundland fisheries, [106];
Northeast Passage, [106], [108], [164], [213];
Hawkins in Brazil, [107];
Company of Cathay, [109];
Guiana, [130]-[132];
Canada Company, [141];
Council of Trade, [114], [182];
Committee on Trade and Plantations, [153], [344];
Navigation Acts, [153], [180]-[181], [348]-[349], [351], [354]-[355];
Mercantilist System, [179];
Admiralty Courts, [182]-[183], [349];
Customs Officials, [183], [439];
Council for Trade and Plantations, [182];
Board of Trade, [346]-[348], [543];
African Company, [196], [199];
Hudson's Bay Company, [212]-[214];
Asiento of 1713, [273], [289];
Trade of New England, [217], [331];
Rhode Island, [216];
Massachusetts, [217];
New York, [221]-[222], [331]-[332];
Pennsylvania and New Jersey, [225]-[226];
Delaware, [332]-[333];
Virginia and Maryland, [188], [228]-[229], [333]-[334];
South Carolina, [102], [230]-[231];
English Florida, [407]-[408];
Detroit, [422];
of Bermudas, [130];
of Barbados, [210], [340];
of West Indies, [339]-[341], [356], [398];
St. Eustatius Island, [341], [428];
Leeward Islands, [340];
smuggling, [359]-[360], [361], [385], [398], [406], [428];
Grenville's policy, [429]-[437];
Townshend Acts, [438]-[439];
North's policy, [449]-[451];
policy of First Continental Congress, [454]-[455];
Board of Admiralty, [543].
Commission for Foreign Plantations, trouble with Massachusetts,
[145]-[146].
Committees of Correspondence, [436], [445]-[447].
Committee on Foreign Correspondence, [543].
Committee on Trade and Plantations, [153], [344].
Committee for Foreign Plantations, [153].
Committee of Trade, Plantations, and Foreign Affairs, [153].
Compagnie d'Occident, rule in Louisiana, [278]-[280];
trade in the trans-Mississippi West, [282].
Compagnie du Nord, competition with Hudson's Bay Company, [273].
Company of Cathay, [109].
Company of Hundred Associates, [87], [90].
Company of the Indies. See Compagnie d'Occident.
Company of Isles of America, organization, [93];
activities and settlements, [94].
Company of New France, surrender of rights, [91].
Company of Royal Adventurers trading to Africa, [196].
Company of St. Christopher, [93], [94].
Compostela, capital of Nueva Galicia, [39], [45], [55].
Conant, Roger, [141].
Conchos Indians, [242].
Conchos River, [72];
Spanish advance down valley of, [290].
Congregational Church, in New England, [220];
in New York, [223];
in East New Jersey, [224];
in South Carolina, [231].
Connecticut, early claimants, [149];
migration of 1635-1636, [149];
Pequot War, [149]-[150];
"Fundamental Orders," [150];
code of 1650, [155];
member of New England Confederation, [156];
incorporation of new towns, [158];
charter of 1662, [190];
attitude toward royal commissioners, [191];
King Philip's War, [191]-[192];
Dominion of New England, [194]-[195];
charter restored, [195];
population, [216];
religion, [220];
education, [220];
restoration of charter, [334];
protest against Grenville's policy, [432];
navy, [518].
Consag, Father Fernando, explores Gulf of California, [304], [307].
Conspiracy of Pontiac, impedes English occupation of Ohio Valley,
[409], [417].
Continental Army, [464].
Continental Congress. See First Continental Congress,
Second Continental Congress.
Convention of Aranjuez, [515].
Conway Cabal, [503]-[504].
Cook, Captain James, voyage to Nootka Sound, [395].
Cooper, Anthony Ashley. Lord Ashley, Carolina proprietor, [207]-[208];
interest in Hudson's Say Company, [213].
Copala, Mexico, Ibarra seeks, [56].
Coppermine River, discovered by Hearne, [424].
Corazones, Sonora, settlement at, [45].
Córdova, Francisco Hernández de, conquests in Central America,
explores Yucatán, [25], [31], [32].
Cornwallis, Edward, Governor of Acadia, [366].
Cornwallis, Gen. Lord, captures Ft. Lee, [489];
New Jersey campaign, [489]-[493];
at Brandywine, [500];
in command in South, [525];
Camden, [525]-[526];
operations in the Carolinas, [527]-[529];
in Virginia, [530];
Yorktown, [532].
Coronado, Francisco Vásquez, governor of Nueva Galicia, [40];
expedition to Cibola and Quivira (New Mexico and Kansas), [44]-[46];
conquest of Pueblo Indians, [45].
Corregidores, [14], [49].
Corregimientos, [55], [76].
Cortés, Hernando, [25], [31];
conquests, [32]-[38];
revolt of and departure from Cuba, [32];
founds Vera Cruz, [33];
at Mexico City, [33];
contest for royal favor, [34];
governor and captain-general, [34];
spread of his conquests, [36]-[39];
expelled from Vera Cruz, [36];
march to Honduras, [38];
return to Spain, [38];
explorations on South Sea and in California, [42]-[44], [46];
contest for leadership, [44];
administrator, [47]-[48];
residencia, [48];
honored in Spain, [49].
Cortés, Martin, second Marquis of the Valley, [53]-[54].
Cortes, governing bodies in Castile and Aragon, [14].
Costa Rica, conquest of, [31].
Cotton, John, pastor of Boston church, [146];
the Hutchinsonian Controversy, [148].
Council for Foreign Plantations, [181].
Council for New England, [136]-[137];
grants patent to Plymouth, [319];
land grants, [140];
resigns charter, [146].
Council for Trade and Plantations, [182].
Council of Blood, [52].
Council of the Indies, organization, duties, and authority, [19]-[20];
promulgates New Laws, [50].
Council of the Inquisition, [14];
expulsion of Jews and Moors, [14].
Council of State, English, [152], [153].
Council of Trade of 1622, [114];
of 1625, [114];
of 1660, [182].
Council of Trent, [52].
Council of Virginia, [113].
Coureurs de bois, [90], [100], [102], [257], [422].
Courten, William, proprietor in Barbados and Carolina, [132],