Composers of the period who have separate notices in the Britannica are: Italian: Cesti, M. A., c. 1620–1669; Colonna, Giovanni P., c. 1637–1695; Pasquini, B., 1637–1710; Stradella, Alessandro, 1645–1682; Corelli, Arcangelo, 1653–1713, first classic of the violin; Steffani, A., 1653–1728; Scarlatti, Alessandro, 1659–1725, largely created language of modern music; Pitoni, G. O., 1657–1743; Lotti, Antonio, c. 1667–1740; Clari, G. C. M., c. 1669–1745; Bononcini, G. B., c. 1672–1750; Albinoni, T., c. 1674–1745; Astorga, Emanuele d’, 1681–1736; Durante, Francesco, 1684–1755; Marcello, B., 1686–1739; Vinci, Leonardo, 1690–1730; Leo, Leonardo, 1694–1744; Logroscino, Nicola, c. 1700–1763; Pergolesi, Giovanni Battista, 1710–1736; Alberti, Domenico, c. 1710–1740; French: Cambert, R., 1628–1677; Lully, Jean-Baptiste, c. 1623–1687, inventor of the classical French opera style; English: Locke, Matthew, c. 1630–1677; Blow, John, 1648–1708; Purcell, Henry, 1658–1695; Croft, William, 1678–1727; Handel, George Frederick, 1685–1759; Greene, Maurice, 1695–1755; German: Bach, Johann Sebastian, 1685–1750; Hasse, Johann A., 1699–1783; Eberlin, J. E., 1702–1762.

THE RISE OF THE SONATA

The Third Great Climax

Bach, like Palestrina, seemed to have closed a period; and for nearly a hundred years after his death his influence on the course of musical development was astonishingly small. Again men sought new channels of expression and found them in instrumental music. But a structure less loosely knit than the suite form was needed if the new ideas were to be adequately stated, and the sonata grew into being, a form which has sufficed to this day as a medium for the noblest thoughts of the great composers. The 18th century saw, too, the reform of the opera by Gluck, a great development of orchestral resources, and the rise of the string quartette in chamber music.

Subject Article
The new language: evolution of the sonata from the suite. Music (Vol. 19, p. 79); Sonata, Sonata Style (Vol. 25, p. 394); see also Scarletti, Dominico (Vol. 24, p. 302); and Bach, K. P. E. (Vol. 3, p. 130).
Reform of the opera. Opera (Vol. 20, p. 123); see also Gluck (Vol. 12, p. 138); Piccinni (Vol. 21, p. 579); Mozart (Vol. 18, p. 951).
The rise of the symphony and the string quartette, development of the sonata. Music, The Symphonic Classes (Vol. 19, p. 78); Sonata Forms (Vol. 25, p. 395); Symphony (Vol. 26, p. 290); see also Haydn (Vol. 13, p. 110).
The growth of the orchestra. Instrumentation, Symphonic (Vol. 14, p. 652); see also Haydn (Vol. 13, p. 110).
The third great climax. The perfection of the sonata form. Beethoven, L. von (Vol. 3, p. 644); see also Sonata Forms (Vol. 25, p. 397); Instrumentation (Vol. 14, p. 653); Variations (Vol. 27, p. 913); Mass (Vol. 17, p. 850).

Biographies of the following composers of the period appear in the Britannica: German and Austrian: Bach, Karl Philipp Emanuel, 1714–1788; Gluck, C. W., 1714–1787; Hiller, J. A., 1728–1804; Haydn, Franz Joseph, 1732–1809; Dittersdorf, Karl Ditters von, 1739–1799; Winter, P., c. 1755–1825; Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus, 1756–1791; Himmel, F. H., 1765–1814; Beethoven, Ludwig van, 1770–1827; French: Gossec, F. J., 1734–1829; Gretry, A. E. M., 1741–1813; Mehul, Etienne H., 1763–1817; Lesueur, Jean François, c. 1763–1837; Boieldieu, F. A., 1775–1834; English: Arne, T. A., 1710–1778, preserved English tradition in face of Handelian obsession; Boyce, William, 1710–1779; Jackson, W., 1730–1803; Battishill, J., 1738–1801; Arnold, S., 1740–1802; Dibdin, C., 1745–1814; Shield, W., 1748–1829; Storace, S., 1763–1796; Attwood, T., 1765–1838; Wesley, Samuel, 1766–1837, father of modern organ playing; Italian: Scarlatti, Domenico, 1685–1757; Martini, G. B., 1706–1784; Galuppi, Baldassare, 1706–1785; Jommelli, N., 1714–1774; Guglielmi, P., 1727–1804; Piccinni, N., 1728–1800; Sarti, Giuseppe, 1729–1802; Sacchini, A. M. G., 1734–1786; Paisiello, G., 1741–1816; Boccherini, Luigi, 1743–1805, last real master of suite form; Cimarosa, D., 1749–1801; Salieri, A., 1750–1825; Cherubini, 1760–1842; Paer, F., 1771–1839.

NEW PATHS

Early in the 19th century the wave of romanticism broke over Europe. The effect on music was not nearly so violent as was the monodic revolt of the 16th–17th centuries, since the resources and technique of the art had now been developed; but it was nevertheless striking and showed itself in several directions, but mainly in two: lyrical and dramatic. The short compositions of Field, Schumann, and Chopin, and the development of the art song are instances of the former; the whole range of programme music, of which the symphonic poem is the prototype, is evidence of the latter; while in opera the reforms started by Gluck were carried to their logical conclusion by Wagner. Two other movements are also significant; the return to Bach and a recognition of his amazing modernity, and the pronounced revival of national characteristics in music, as shown particularly in the new English, Russian, and Bohemian Schools.

Subject Article
The Romantic Period. Music, From Beethoven to Wagner (Vol. 19, p. 79).
The Romantic in opera. Weber, Carl Maria F. E. von (Vol. 28, p. 455); Song (Vol. 25, p. 409).
The first great lyrical song writer. Schubert, Franz Peter (Vol. 24, p. 379); Song (Vol. 25, p. 409).
The Romantic in the symphony. Programme Music (Vol. 22, p. 424); see also Berlioz, Hector (Vol. 3, p. 791).
The rediscovery of Bach. Bach, J. S. (Vol. 2, p. 124); Mendelssohn (Vol. 18, pp. 121–124).
Development of song forms. Song (Vol. 25, p. 410); see also Schumann, Robert (Vol. 24, p. 384); Wolf, Hugo (Vol. 28, p. 771); Brahms, J. (Vol. 4, p. 390).
Discontent with the sonata form. Symphonic Poem (Vol. 26, p. 289); Liszt, F. (Vol. 16, p. 780).
Gluck’s idea realised; union of music Music (Vol. 19, p. 80); Operas, Leit-Motif with drama. (Vol. 20, p. 125); Wagner, W. Richard (Vol. 28, p. 236).
The last of the royal line of German composers shows vitality of the sonata form. Brahms, Johannes (Vol. 4, p. 389); Sonata Forms, Sonata since Beethoven (Vol. 25, p. 398).
Modern Tendencies. Music (Vol. 19, p. 82); see also Strauss, Richard (Vol. 25, p. 1003); Debussy, Achille (Vol. 7, p. 906).

Composers of this period, who have had separate articles assigned to them in the Britannica, follow: the growth of national schools will be noted.