Next is given an outline of a course of reading in Canadian and then in English History, then in French History, and then in the History of the countries of the Far East, India, China and Japan. These will show the reader how fully and authoritatively the history of countries, whether near or distant, is given in the Britannica; and if he wishes to pursue his studies into the record of other countries, it is certain that with these for an example, and with the aid of the Index, he will have no trouble in so doing.

CHAPTER XLIII
AMERICAN HISTORY

The plan adopted in most of the chapters of this Guide is to give a separate account of each of the more important articles on the subject to which the chapter is devoted. But in the case of American history, the articles are so numerous, and are so accurately dovetailed to make a continuous story, that the reader’s convenience has been better served by reversing this process, and grouping the articles under the periods with which they deal. The reader is thus enabled to turn at once to any one of the outstanding episodes of the story, and to find explicit references to those parts of the Britannica in which the narrative is continued from one article to another. The summary has been put in the form of a table, in order that its contents may more easily be surveyed. There is a much fuller summary, in narrative form, in the Britannica itself in the historical portion of the article United States (Vol. 27, pp. 663–735). This is the most complete condensed history of the country that has ever been written. It is not quite so long as this entire Guide; but from each of its 412 sections the reader can turn to articles describing in detail the events consecutively outlined.

It has been taken for granted that the reader will recognize the natural connection between this and other chapters of the Guide. For example, no attempt has been made in this chapter to indicate the articles, elsewhere described, which discuss the history of American industries and commerce, railroads and shipping, finance and economics, art and literature. Again, the particular history of a city, town, or river may be of the greatest interest in itself, although the events with which its name is associated were not so typical of any period as to give the article a place in the present chapter. Similarly, the numerous and elaborate American biographies are represented, in this chapter, only by the names of the foremost statesmen and soldiers of the periods included in the table. In short, the articles named are so few, in proportion to all those which directly relate to American history, that the general effect is to make the space which the Britannica devotes to the subject seem less than it really is. But it is not the purpose of this Guide to impress upon the reader the magnitude of the volumes he is using. In that respect the Britannica speaks for itself. The table instances a few of the main topics of American history, in order to show the reader how he may plan fuller courses of reading by combining other articles on the principle indicated by these illustrations.

The left hand columns present a brief outline of the main periods and aspects of American history. The right hand columns give the titles of the articles to be read, the page numbers as well as the volume numbers (so that when the reference is to only one section of a long article the reader can find it at once) and the names of the contributors.

Topics for Reading Articles
The Aborigines.
Where did they come from, and when? Their food, tools, clothing and customs. How they carried on their wars. Their practical knowledge and religion. What the white man has learned from the Indians. Over 1000 languages and dialects in America. America, Ethnology and Archaeology (Vol. 1, p. 810, fully illustrated), by Otis Tufton Mason, late curator, Department of Anthropology, National Museum, Washington; author of Primitive Travel and Transportation, etc.
Indians, North American (Vol. 14, p. 452), by Dr. A. F. Chamberlain, professor of anthropology, Clark University.
Evidence of Asiatic origin. A state of culture in Mexico and Peru, “which in some respects must have put the Spaniards to shame.” Archaeology (Vol. 2, p. 349), by Dr. Charles H. Read, keeper of British and Medieval Antiquities and Ethnography, British Museum.
The fascinating story of the Aztecs. Did the Asiatic peoples make voyages to America long before Columbus? Mexico, Ancient History and Civilization (Vol. 18, p. 329), by Dr. E. B. Tylor, professor of anthropology at Oxford; author of Methods and Results in Mexican Research.
The splendid past of Central America. What was accomplished during the 500 years of Mayan culture. An interesting calendar. Central America, Archaeology of (Vol. 5, p. 677), by Dr. Walter Lehmann, Royal Ethnographical Museum, Munich.
First Voyages of Discovery.
The Northmen first Europeans to reach American continent, about 1000 A.D. The story of the Icelandic sagas. Was Vinland Nova Scotia? Vinland (Vol. 28, p. 98), by Julius E. Olson, professor of Scandinavian languages, University of Wisconsin, editor of Voyages of the Northmen, etc.
The accident of Leif’s discovery of the American continent. Leif Ericsson (Vol. 16, p. 396), by Dr. C. R. Beazley, professor of modern history in the University of Birmingham, author of The Dawn of Modern Geography.
The first colonizer (A.D. 1002). Fate of the colony. The hostile Skraelings. Thorfinn Karlsefni (Vol. 26, p. 878), by Dr. C. R. Beazley, author of The Dawn of Modern Geography, etc.
Columbus and His Successors.
Treaty of Tordesillas (1494). America, General Historical Sketch (Vol. 1, p. 806), by David Hannay, author of A Short History of the Royal Navy.
Columbus thinks he discovers Asia. His voyages and colonies (1492–1504). Columbus, Christopher (Vol. 6, p. 741), by Dr. C. R. Beazley, author of The Dawn of Modern Geography, etc.
Discovery of the Mainland (1497). Cabot, John (Vol. 4, p. 921), by Henry P. Biggar, author of The Voyage of the Cabots to Greenland.
How the New World received its name. The beginning of free-lance expeditions. The mystery of the voyage of 1497. Vespucci, Amerigo (Vol. 27, p. 1053), by Dr. C. R. Beazley, author of The Dawn of Modern Geography, etc.
The Discovery of the Pacific (1513). Balboa, Vasco Nuñez de (Vol. 3, p. 241).
The existence of a new continent distinct from Asia revealed to the world. First circumnavigation of the globe. The Pacific Ocean named (1520). Magellan, Ferdinand (Vol. 17, p. 302), by Dr. C. R. Beazley, author of The Dawn of Modern Geography, etc.
Pacific Ocean, History (Vol. 20, p. 438).
The Conquest of Mexico (1519–1521). “The Descendant of the Sun.” Discovery of Lower California. Ingratitude of Charles V. Cortes, Hernan (Vol. 7, p. 205).
California, Lower (Vol. 5, p. 21).
Exploration of Guatemala and Yucatan (1528), and the Mississippi (1541). Soto, Ferdinando de (Vol. 25, p. 435).
France attacks Spain in the New World. Las Casas, Bartolomé de (Vol. 16, p. 232).
Discovery of the St. Lawrence (1534). How Canada got its name. Early Canadian History. Cartier, Jacques (Vol. 5, p. 433), by H. P. Biggar, author of The Voyage of the Cabots to Greenland.
Canada, History (Vol. 5, p. 156), by Dr. George McKinnon Wrong, University of Toronto.
Foundation of Quebec (1608). Discovery of Lake Champlain (1609). Champlain assists Algonquins and Hurons against the Iroquois. The beginning of the murderous conflicts between the French and the Iroquois. Champlain, Samuel de (Vol. 5, p. 830), by Prof. Narcisse E. Dionne, Librarian of the Legislature of the Province of Quebec, author of Life of Samuel de Champlain, Founder of Quebec, etc.
The Fortunes of New France. Colonial Expansion. Horrors of Indian Warfare. Frontenac (Vol. 11, p. 249), by Dr. Arthur G. Doughty, Dominion archivist of Canada, author of The Cradle of New France, etc.
Louisiana in possession of France (1682). Discovery of the Ohio River. La Salle, René Robert, Sieur de (Vol. 16, p. 230), by Charles C. Whinery, assistant editor, Encyclopaedia Britannica.
The first English colony (1583) unsuccessful. Newfoundland, History (Vol. 19, p. 482), by Beckles Willson, author of The Romance of Canada, etc.
The persistent efforts of Raleigh (1584–1587). First English child born in America (Aug. 15, 1587). North Carolina, History (Vol. 19, p.
775). North Carolina, History (Vol. 19, p. 775).
Raleigh, Sir Walter (Vol. 22, p. 869), by David Hannay, author of Short History of the Royal Navy.
The first permanent English settlement (1607). Virginia, History (Vol. 28, p. 122).
Jamestown (Vol. 15, p. 148).
Colonial Expansion and Development of Imperial Control.
The Thirteen Original Colonies, their Founders and Leaders, and their early Struggles. United States, History (Vol. 27, p. 663), by Dr. Herbert L. Osgood, professor of history, Columbia University, author of The American Colonies in the 17th Century, etc.
Virginia. Virginia (Vol. 28, p. 122).
Jamestown (Vol. 15, p. 148).
Smith, John (Vol. 25, p. 264).
Gosnold, Bartholomew (Vol. 12, p. 265).
Berkeley, Sir William (Vol. 3, p. 781).
Blair, James (Vol. 4, p. 34).
Spotswood, Alexander (Vol. 25, p. 735).
North Carolina. North Carolina (Vol. 19, p. 775).
South Carolina. South Carolina (Vol. 25, p. 503).
New England. New England (Vol. 19, p. 476).
Massachusetts. Massachusetts (Vol. 17, p. 858).
Plymouth, Mass. (Vol. 21, p. 863).
Bradford, William (Vol. 4, p. 370).
Standish, Miles (Vol. 25, p. 772)
Alden, John (Vol. 1, p. 533).
Winslow, Edward (Vol. 28, p. 733).
Endecott, John (Vol. 9, p. 382).
Salem (Vol. 24, p. 62).
Winthrop, John (Vol. 28, p. 736).
Boston, Mass. (Vol. 4, p. 290).
Ipswich, Mass. (Vol. 14, p. 739).
Vane, Sir Henry (Vol. 27, p. 892).
Hutchinson, Anne (Vol. 14, p. 12).
Maine (a part of Massachusetts). Maine (Vol. 17, p. 439).
Popham, Sir John (Vol. 22, p. 88).
Gorges, Sir Ferdinando (Vol. 12, p. 256).
Portland, Me. (Vol. 22, p. 120).
Rhode Island. Rhode Island (Vol. 23, p. 251).
Williams, Roger (Vol. 28, p. 682).
Providence (Vol. 22, p. 512).
New Hampshire. New Hampshire (Vol. 19, p. 496).
Portsmouth, N. H. (Vol. 22, p. 132).
Connecticut. Connecticut (Vol. 6, p. 954).
Hooker, Thomas (Vol. 13, p. 674).
New Haven (Vol. 19, p. 499).
Eaton, Theophilus (Vol. 8, p. 838).
Hartford (Vol. 13, p. 33).
Vermont. Vermont (Vol. 27, p. 1028).
Indian Wars in New England. Pequot (Vol. 21, p. 132).
Philip, King (Vol. 21, p. 389).
New York. New York (Vol. 19, p. 603).
Hudson, Henry (Vol. 13, p. 849).
Iroquois (Vol. 14, p. 839).
New York (City) (Vol. 19, p. 620).
Albany (Vol. 1, p. 490).
Staten Island (Vol. 25, p. 802).
Long Island (Vol. 16, p. 982).
Stuyvesant, Peter (Vol. 25, p. 1055).
New Jersey. New Jersey (Vol. 19, p. 508).
Carteret, Sir George (Vol. 5, p. 413).
Andros, Sir Edmund (Vol. 2, p. 1).
Elizabeth, N. J. (Vol. 9, p. 287).
Delaware. Delaware (Vol. 7, p. 949).
Lewes (Vol. 16, p. 522).
New Castle (Vol. 19, p. 472).
Wilmington (Vol. 28, p. 690).
Pennsylvania. Pennsylvania (Vol. 21, p. 111).
Penn, William (Vol. 21, p. 99), by Osmund Airy, author of Charles II, editor of the Lauderdale Papers, etc.
Friends, Society of (Vol. 11, p. 227).
Philadelphia (Vol. 21, p. 372).
Maryland. Maryland (Vol. 17, p. 831), by N. D. Mereness, Ph.D., author of Maryland as a Proprietary Province.
Baltimore, George Calvert, 1st Baron (Vol. 3, p. 288).
Baltimore (Vol. 3, p. 290).
Mason and Dixon Line (Vol. 17, p. 841).
Georgia. Georgia (Vol. 11, p. 755).
Oglethorpe, James Edward (Vol. 20, p. 24).
Savannah (Vol. 24, p. 240).
The French and Indian Wars.
Struggle of the British and the French in America. Pressure of British on the French “paper barriers.” Old-World quarrel carried into the New World. United States, History, The Struggle with the French (1690–1760) (Vol. 27, p. 670), by Prof. H. L. Osgood, Columbia University.
Canada, History (Vol. 5, p. 156), by Prof. G. M. Wrong, author of A Canadian Manor and Its Seigneurs, etc.
Capture of Louisburg, 1745. Louisburg (Vol. 17, p. 52).
Albany Congress of 1754. Albany, N. Y. (Vol. 1, p. 490).
The Continental Contest of which the French and Indian Wars were a part. Seven Years’ War (Vol. 24, p. 715), by Col. F. N. Maude, author of War and the World’s Policy, and David Hannay, author of Short History of the Royal Navy.
Western Campaigns. In Pennsylvania and Virginia. Pittsburg (Vol. 21, p. 680).
Braddock, Edward (Vol. 4, p. 369).
Pontiac (Vol. 22, p. 65).
Dinwiddie, Robert (Vol. 8, p. 278).
Shirley, William (Vol. 24, p. 991).
The New York Frontier and Fighting there. Ticonderoga (Vol. 26, p. 937).
George, Lake (Vol. 11, p. 748).
Niagara, Fort (Vol. 19, p. 634).
Johnson, Sir William (Vol. 15, p. 472).
The Campaign against Quebec and its Capture by the British. Quebec (Vol. 22, p. 728).
Wolfe, James (Vol. 28, p. 773).
Montcalm (Vol. 18, p. 761).
Colonization on the Pacific Coast.
Spanish Government in California. Rule of the Missions. “A complete failure save in the acquisition of material wealth.” California, History (Vol. 5, p. 17).
The Spaniards neglect northwestern America. Oregon, History (Vol. 20, p. 247).
British Traders seize the opportunity. Hudson’s Bay Company (Vol. 13, p. 852).
The Colonial Revolt and Events Leading up to It.
(1763–1783). United States, History (Vol. 27, p. 672), by Prof. H. L. Osgood, Columbia University.
Immediate Causes:
The Stamp Act (1765). Stamp (Vol. 25, p. 772).
Boston Massacre and Boston Tea Party. Boston (Vol. 4, p. 296); Hutchinson, Thomas (Vol. 14, p. 13).
Suffolk Resolves. Milton, Mass. (Vol. 18, p. 492).
Mecklenburg Resolutions and “Declaration,” May, 1775. North Carolina (Vol. 19, p. 776).
Virginia leaders decide on independence to secure foreign assistance. Virginia, History (Vol. 28, p. 123).
The Leaders of Public Opinion:
Virginia. Henry, Patrick (Vol. 13, p. 300), by N. D. Mereness, author of Maryland, a Proprietary Province.
Washington, George (Vol. 28, p. 344), by Prof. William MacDonald, Brown University.
Lee, Richard Henry (Vol. 16, p. 362).
Massachusetts. Otis, James (Vol. 20, p. 366).
Adams, Samuel (Vol. 1, p. 180), by Prof. Edward Channing, Harvard.
Adams, John (Vol. 1, p. 176).
New Hampshire. Langdon, John (Vol. 16, p. 172).
Pennsylvania. Dickinson, John (Vol. 8, p. 184).
Franklin, Benjamin (Vol. 11, p. 24), by Richard Webster.
New York. Hamilton, Alexander (Vol. 12, p. 881), by Dr. F. S. Philbrick and Hugh Chisholm, editor-in-chief Encyclopaedia Britannica.
Conservative Leaders. Loyalists, or Tories (Vol. 17, p. 79).
Galloway, Joseph (Vol. 11, p. 421).
Seabury, Samuel (Vol. 24, p. 531).
Tryon, William (Vol. 27, p. 340).
Johnson, Sir William and Sir John (Vol. 15, p. 472).
Why did not the Canadians revolt? Quebec Act (Vol. 22, p. 729).
Declaration of Independence.
Resolution of Independence adopted July 2. Independence, Declaration of (Vol. 14, p. 372), by Dr. F. S. Philbrick.
Jefferson’s Declaration adopted July 4. Most of the signatures affixed Aug. 2. One not until 1781.
Some of the “Signers”:
Virginia. Jefferson, Thomas (Vol. 15, p. 301), by Dr. F. S. Philbrick.
Lee, Richard Henry (Vol. 16, p. 362).
Lee, Francis Lightfoot (Vol. 16, p. 362).
Massachusetts. Hancock, John (Vol. 12, p. 908).
Adams, Samuel (Vol. 1, p. 180), by Prof. Edward Channing.
Adams, John (Vol. 1, p. 176), by Prof. Edward Channing.
Paine, Robert Treat (Vol. 20, p. 456).
Gerry, Elbridge (Vol. 11, p. 903).
New York. Livingston, Philip (Vol. 16, p. 813).
Pennsylvania. Morris, Robert (Vol. 18, p. 871).
Rush, Benjamin (Vol. 23, p. 857).
Franklin, Benjamin (Vol. 11, p. 24).
Wilson, James (Vol. 28, p. 693).
New Jersey. Witherspoon, John (Vol. 28, p. 759).
Hopkinson, Francis (Vol. 13, p. 685).
Connecticut. Sherman, Roger (Vol. 24, p. 851).
Wolcott, Oliver (Vol. 28, p. 770).
Rhode Island. Ellery, William (Vol. 9, p. 290).
Maryland. Carroll, Charles (Vol. 5, p. 409).
South Carolina. Middleton, Arthur (Vol. 18, p. 415).
Rutledge, Edward (Vol. 23, p. 945).
English Opinion and Policy. George III (Vol. 11, p. 740), by Dr. S. R. Gardiner, author of History of England.
Guilford, Frederick North, 2nd Earl (Lord North) (Vol. 12, p. 691).
“Conciliation.” Burke, Edmund (Vol. 4, p. 824), by John Morley (Viscount Morley of Blackburn).
Chatham, Earl of (Pitt) (Vol. 6, p. 1).
Fox, Charles James (Vol. 10, p. 761), by David Hannay.
American Foreign Agents and their work, especially in France, during the war. Franklin, Benjamin (Vol. 11, p. 24).
Deane, Silas (Vol. 7, p. 898).
Lee, Arthur (Vol. 16, p. 360).
Jay, John (Vol. 15, p. 294).
The War for Independence.
General outline. American War of Independence (Vol. 1, p. 842), by Prof. Harry Phelps Johnston, New York University, author of Loyalist History of the Revolution, and, for naval affairs, by David Hannay, author of A Short History of the Royal Navy.
American Leaders Revere, Paul (Vol. 23, p. 223).
In early fighting in Massachusetts Warren, Joseph (Vol. 28, p. 330).
Putnam, Israel (Vol. 22, p. 670).
Washington, George (Vol. 28, p. 344), by Prof. William MacDonald, Brown University.
On the border and in Canada Allen, Ethan (Vol. 1, p. 691).
Montgomery, Richard (Vol. 18, p. 784).
Arnold, Benedict (Vol. 2, p. 633).
Schuyler, Philip John (Vol. 24, p. 387).
In the Middle States Washington, George (Vol. 28, p. 344), by Prof. William MacDonald, Brown University.
Stirling, William Alexander, Earl of (Vol. 25, p. 925).
Knox, Henry (Vol. 15, p. 878).
Stark, John (Vol. 25, p. 798).
Wayne, Anthony (Vol. 28, p. 432).
Gates, Horatio (Vol. 11, p. 529).
Benedict, Arnold (Vol. 2, p. 633).
Sullivan, John (Vol. 26, p. 57).
In the South Moultrie, William (Vol. 18, p. 935).
Morgan, Daniel (Vol. 18, p. 833).
Marion, Francis (Vol. 17, p. 722).
Pickens, Andrew (Vol. 21, p. 582).
Sumter, Thomas (Vol. 26, p. 85).
Shelby, Isaac (Vol. 24, p. 826).
Gates, Horatio (Vol. 11, p. 529).
Lee, Henry (Vol. 16, p. 361).
Greene, Nathaniel (Vol. 12, p. 588).
In the Northwest Clark, George Rogers (Vol. 6, p. 442).
On Sea Jones, John Paul (Vol. 15, p. 499).
Hopkins, Esek (Vol. 13, p. 684).
Foreign Officers in the War
French Lafayette (Vol. 16, p. 65).
Rochambeau (Vol. 23, p. 425).
Grasse, Comte de (Vol. 12, p. 369).
Estaing, C. H. d’ (Vol. 9, p. 789).
Polish Kosciuszko (Vol. 15, p. 914).
Pulaski (Vol. 22, p. 640).
German Steuben (Vol. 25, p. 904).
Kalb, Johann (Vol. 15, p. 639).
English Leaders
On land Howe, William (Vol. 13, p. 839).
Clinton, Sir Henry (Vol. 6, p. 529).
Burgoyne, John (Vol. 4, p. 819).
André, John (Vol. 1, p. 968).
Cornwallis, Charles (Vol. 7, p. 183).
Tarleton, Sir Banastre (Vol. 26, p. 428).
On sea Hastings, Marquess of (Lord Rawdon) (Vol. 13, p. 53).
Howe, Richard (Vol. 13, p. 836).
Rodney, George Brydges (Vol. 23, p. 447).
Byron, John (Vol. 4, p. 906).
The Principal Engagements of the War, Separately Treated
Around Boston Lexington (Vol. 16, p. 527).
Concord (Vol. 6, p. 830).
Bunker Hill (Vol. 4, p. 798).
Boston (Vol. 4, p. 296).
Canada and the Border Ticonderoga (Vol. 26, p. 938).
Crown Point (Vol. 7, p. 519).
Quebec (Vol. 22, p. 728).
Middle States Long Island (Vol. 16, p. 984), by C. F. Atkinson, author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbour.
New York City (Vol. 19, p. 622).
Trenton and Princeton (Vol. 27, p. 252).
Brandywine (Vol. 4, p. 430).
Germantown (Vol. 11, p. 804).
Saratoga (Vol. 24, p. 205).
Bennington (Vol. 3, p. 743).
Valley Forge (Vol. 27, p. 864).
Monmouth (Vol. 18, p. 727).
Stony Point (Vol. 25, p. 966).
West Point (Vol. 28, p. 559).
South Charleston (Vol. 5, p. 944).
Camden (Vol. 5, p. 102).
King’s Mountain (Vol. 15, p. 819).
Eutawville (Vol. 9, p. 957).
Yorktown (Vol. 28, p. 936).
Governmental History.
First attempts at Confederation (1776–1789). Article of Confederation (1777–1781). United States, History (Vol. 27, p. 681), by Prof. H. L. Osgood, Columbia University.
Difficulties of ratification. Maryland (Vol. 17, p. 832), by Dr. N. D. Mereness, author of Maryland, a Proprietary Province.
Necessity for centralization seen (1779–1780). Hamilton, Alexander (Vol. 12, p. 880), by Dr. F. S. Philbrick and Hugh Chisholm, editor 11th Edition Encyclopaedia Britannica.
Recognition of the United States.
Treaty of Versailles (Sept. 1783).		 Franklin, Benjamin (Vol. 11, p. 27), by Richard Webster.
Adams, John (Vol. 1, p. 176), by Dr. Edward Channing, Harvard University.
Jay, John (Vol. 15, p. 294).
Laurens, Henry (Vol. 16, p. 284).
Struggle for National Government.
The Critical Period.
Government found impossible under the articles (1783–1789).		 United States, History (Vol. 27, p. 684), by Dr. Alexander Johnston, late professor of history, Princeton University, and C. C. Whinery, assistant editor, Encyclopaedia Britannica.
Territorial cessions and government. Ordinance of 1787. Jefferson, Thomas (Vol. 15, p. 303), by Dr. F. S. Philbrick.
Roundabout origin of the Constitutional Conventions: Madison, James (Vol. 17, p. 285).
Alexandria (1785). Alexandria, Va. (Vol. 1, p. 572).
Annapolis (1786). Annapolis, Va. (Vol. 2, p. 63).
Philadelphia (1787). Philadelphia, History (Vol. 21, p. 372).
The three plans:
Virginia Randolph, Edmund J. (Vol. 22, p. 886).
Pinckney Pinckney, Charles C. (Vol. 21, p. 616).
New Jersey (Paterson) New Jersey (Vol. 19, p. 512).
Struggle over State Representation. Morris, Gouverneur (Vol. 18, p. 869).
Origin of the Senate, Connecticut compromise. Connecticut, History (Vol. 6, p. 956).
Opposition and Ratification. Henry, Patrick (Vol. 13, p. 300).
Hamilton, Alexander (Vol. 12, p. 880), by Dr. F. S. Philbrick and Hugh Chisholm.
Madison, James (Vol. 17, p. 286).
Jay, John (Vol. 15, p. 294).
Federalists and Anti-Federalists. Federalist Party (Vol. 10, p. 235).
Anti-Federalists (Vol. 2, p. 124).
Government Under the Constitution.
The form of Government established by the Constitution. United States, Constitution and Government (Vol. 27, p. 646), by Hon. James Bryce, British Ambassador at Washington, and author of The American Commonwealth.
Washington as President (1789–1797). Washington, George (Vol. 28, p. 347), by Dr. William MacDonald, professor of American History, Brown University.
Development of Democracy (1789–1801). United States, History (Vol. 27, p. 688), by Prof. Alexander Johnston and C. C. Whinery.
Constitution finally ratified by all the States. North Carolina (Vol. 19, p. 777).
Rhode Island (Vol. 23, p. 252).
The first Tariff act, 1789, a moderate protective measure. Tariff (Vol. 26, p. 425), by Dr. F. W. Taussig, professor Harvard University, author of Principles of Economics, etc.
Admission of new States, Vermont and Kentucky. Vermont (Vol. 27, p. 1028).
Kentucky (Vol. 15, p. 746).
Hamilton’s efforts for strength and stability. His tendency towards Aristocracy. Opposition of Jefferson. Hamilton, Alexander (Vol. 12, p. 881), by Dr. F. S. Philbrick and Hugh Chisholm, editor-in-chief Encyclopaedia Britannica.
Jefferson, Thomas (Vol. 15, p. 303), by Dr. F. S. Philbrick.
Excise troubles (1794). First employment by the Federal Executive of power to enforce Federal laws within the States. Whisky Insurrection (Vol. 28, p. 592).
Gallatin, Albert (Vol. 11, p. 414), by Henry Cabot Lodge, U. S. Senator from Massachusetts, biographer of Washington, Webster, etc.
Jay’s treaty with England (1794). Its defects. Jay, John (Vol. 15, p. 294).
Presidency of John Adams. Alien and Sedition Laws. Adams, John (Vol. 1, p. 176), by Prof. Edward Channing of Harvard.
Organization of Navy Department (1798). Navy and Navies, The United States (Vol. 19, p. 308), by David Hannay.
Admiralty Administration (Vol. 1, p. 201), by the late Rear-Admiral William T. Sampson, U. S. Navy.
Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions. Virginia (Vol. 28, p. 124).
Kentucky (Vol. 15, p. 746).
Part in them taken by Jefferson and Madison. Madison, James (Vol. 17, p. 286).
Idea of Secession present from the beginning. Early threats. Secession (Vol. 24, p. 568), by Dr. Walter L. Fleming, professor Louisiana State University.
Invention of cotton gin (1793) and its far-reaching consequences, introducing a commercial element into slavery. Whitney, Eli (Vol. 28, p. 611).
Democracy and Nationality (1801–1829). United States, History (Vol. 27, p. 692), by Prof. Alexander Johnston and C. C. Whinery.
Election of Jefferson (1800). The Democratic Party called by Jefferson the Republican Party, later and officially the Democratic-Republican, and later still simply the Democratic Party. Democratic Party (Vol. 8, p. 2).
State Rights (Vol. 25, p. 802).
The acquisition of Louisiana (1803). Louisiana Purchase (Vol. 17, p. 62).
The Lewis-Clark expedition (1804); a basis for future acquisition of territory in the far west. Lewis, Meriwether (Vol. 16, p. 523).
Clark, William (Vol. 6, p. 442).
Oregon, History (Vol. 20, p. 248).
War with the Barbary pirates (1805). These robbers first checked by the little American navy. Pirate and Piracy, History (Vol. 21, p. 638), by D. Hannay, author of Short History of the Royal Navy. Eaton, William (Vol. 8, p. 839).
War with Barbary Pirates. Derna (Vol. 8, p. 74), by D. G. Hogarth.
Hull, Isaac (Vol. 13, p. 869).
Expedition of Aaron Burr (1806–1807). Burr, Aaron (Vol. 4, p. 862).
Wilkinson, James (Vol. 28, p. 647), by Dr. Isaac Joslin Cox, professor of history, University of Cincinnati.
Election of Madison (1808). Madison, James (Vol. 17, p. 284).
Difficulties with Great Britain. Restrictions of Commerce and right of search. Search, or Visit and Search (Vol. 24, p. 560), by Sir Thomas Barclay, author of Problems of International Practice and Diplomacy.
The War of 1812.
Military and naval events. American War of 1812 (Vol. 1, p. 847), by David Hannay, author of Short History of the Royal Navy.
Principal engagements and Strategic Points.
In the Northwest Mackinac Island (Vol. 17, p. 255).
Detroit (Vol. 8, p. 116).
Michigan (Vol. 18, p. 376).
Toronto (Vol. 27, p. 53).
Sackett’s Harbor (Vol. 23, p. 974).
Plattsburg (Vol. 21, p. 825).
Champlain (Vol. 5, p. 831).
Niagara, Fort (Vol. 19, p. 635).
In the East Washington (Vol. 28, p. 352).
Baltimore (Vol. 3, p. 290).
In the Southwest New Orleans (Vol. 19, p. 531).
Principal Leaders in the War on Land and on Sea.
American Rodgers, John (Vol. 23, p. 447).
Decatur, Stephen (Vol. 7, p. 910).
Hull, Isaac (Vol. 13, p. 869).
Bainbridge, William (Vol. 3, p. 223).
Porter, David (Vol. 22, p. 113).
Chauncey, Isaac (Vol. 6, p. 18).
Perry, Oliver Hazard (Vol. 21, p. 185).
Brown, Jacob (Vol. 4, p. 659).
Scott, Winfield (Vol. 24, p. 475).
Jackson, Andrew (Vol. 15, p. 107).
On the other side Brock, Sir Isaac (Vol. 4, p. 623).
Ross, Robert (Vol. 23, p. 740).
Broke, Sir P. B. V. (Vol. 4, p. 628).
Tecumseh (Vol. 26, p. 499).
Weakness of Madison’s Administration. Madison, James (Vol. 17, p. 286).
Opposition to the war in New England: The Hartford Convention. Hartford (Vol. 13, p. 33).
After the War.
Reaction against Federalist party Federalist Party (Vol. 10, p. 235).
Acquisition of Florida (1819) Florida, History (Vol. 10, p. 545).
Bank of the United States (1816). Banks and Banking, United States (Vol. 3, p. 345), by Charles A. Conant, author of The History of Modern Banks.
Tariff revision (1816–1828). Tariff (Vol. 26, p. 425), by Prof. F. W. Taussig, Harvard, author of Tariff History of the United States, etc.
“The American System”—Clay’s name for the combination of protective tariff and internal improvements begun by Dallas and carried on by himself and the Whig and Republican parties. Protection (Vol. 22, p. 465), by Dr. Edmund J. James, president of University of Illinois, author of History of American Tariff Legislation.
Dallas, A. J. (Vol. 7, p. 768).
Clay, Henry (Vol. 6, p. 471), by Carl Schurz, biographer of Clay.
The Monroe Doctrine (1823). Monroe, James (Vol. 18, p. 736).
The first weighty international action of the Government—warning to European states at instance of England. Monroe Doctrine (Vol. 18, p. 738), by Dr. Theodore S. Woolsey, professor of International Law, Yale University.
Admission of new States:
Indiana (1816) Indiana, History (Vol. 14, p. 425).
Mississippi (1817) Mississippi, History (Vol. 18, p. 602).
Illinois (1818) Illinois, History (Vol. 14, p. 309).
Alabama (1819) Alabama, History (Vol. 1, p. 462).
Maine (1820) Maine, History (Vol. 17, p. 439).
Missouri (1821) Missouri, History (Vol. 18, p. 613).
Fixing the Northwest Boundary: Agreements with Great Britain (1818 and 1827) and with Russia (1825). Oregon, History (Vol. 20, p. 248).
A nationalizing element in the Republican Party fostered by commercial and manufacturing elements in the East fuses with broad constructionists to form new party (National Republican, later the Whig) under J. Q. Adams and Clay (1824). Whig Party (Vol. 28, p. 589), by Dr. Anson D. Morse, professor of history, Amherst College.
Adams, John Quincy (Vol. 1, p. 178), by Prof. Edward Channing, Harvard University.
Clay, Henry (Vol. 6, p. 470), by Carl Schurz, author of Life of Henry Clay.
Anti-Masonic Party (Vol. 2, p. 127).
Jackson and the Democratic Party. Democratic Party (Vol. 8, p. 2).
The “power of the people” established. Crawford, W. H. (Vol. 6, p. 386).
Free vs. Slave States. Missouri Compromise (Vol. 18, p. 614), by Prof. William Roy Smith, Bryn Mawr College.
Beginning of a sectional struggle, which Clay and others tried to compromise (1820). Missouri, History (Vol. 18, p. 613).
Industrial Development and Sectional Divergence. United States, History (Vol. 27, p. 697), by Prof. Alexander Johnston and C. C. Whinery.
Tendencies to Disunion (1829–1851).
“The reign of Andrew Jackson” (1829–1837). Jackson, Andrew (Vol. 15, p. 107), by the late Prof. William G. Sumner, Yale University, author of Life of Andrew Jackson, etc.
The Kitchen Cabinet and the Cabinet Crisis. Green, Duff (Vol. 12, p. 534).
Eaton, Margaret O’Neill (“Peggy O’Neill”) (Vol. 8, p. 838).
Jackson and the Bank. Banks and Banking, United States (Vol. 3, p. 346), by C. A. Conant, author of History of Modern Banks of Issue.
The new school of leaders.
Jackson’s lieutenant and successor. Van Buren, Martin (Vol. 27, p. 881), by Prof. William MacDonald, Brown University.
Van Buren’s lieutenant in New York. Marcy, W. L. (Vol. 17, p. 696).
The Jacksonian leader in the Senate. Benton, T. H. (Vol. 3, p. 753).
Jackson’s War Secretary, 1831–36. Cass, Lewis (Vol. 5, p. 455).
Jackson’s Attorney-General, Treasurer, and (1835) Chief Justice. Taney, R. B. (Vol. 26, p. 396).
Jackson’s Secretary of State (1831–33), who drafted the anti-nullification proclamation. Livingston, Edward (Vol. 16, p. 811).
Georgia and the Cherokees. Opposition in the South to the Protective System. Tariff of 1832. Georgia, History (Vol. 11, p. 756).
Tariff, United States (Vol. 26, p. 425), by Prof. F. W. Taussig, Harvard University, author of Tariff History of the United States.
Rise and fall of doctrine of Nullification (1830). Calhoun, John C. (Vol. 5, p. 1), by Hon. Henry A. M. Smith, U. S. District Judge, South Carolina.
South Carolina, History (Vol. 25, p. 504).
Nullification not original with Calhoun. Nullification (Vol. 19, p. 846), by Prof. Walter L. Fleming, Louisiana State University.
The debate in the U. S. Senate on nullification—Webster and Hayne. Webster, Daniel (Vol. 28, p. 461), by Everett P. Wheeler, author of Daniel Webster, etc.
Hayne, Robert Young (Vol. 13, p. 114).
Compromise Tariff of 1833. Tariff (Vol. 26, p. 425), by Prof. F. W. Taussig, Harvard, author of Tariff History of the United States.
Beginning of abolitionist movement (1831). The “Liberator.” Slavery, United States (Vol. 25, p. 225), by Dr. J. K. Ingram.
Foundation of American Anti-Slavery Society (1831). Its leaders. Lundy, Benjamin (Vol. 17, p. 124).
Garrison, W. L. (Vol. 11, p. 477).
Dissent from this view and formation of anti-slavery political party (1840). Phillips, Wendell (Vol. 21, p. 407), by Thomas Wentworth Higginson, author of History of the United States.
Liberty Party (Vol. 16, p. 543).
Birney, James G. (Vol. 3, p. 988).
Smith, Gerrit (Vol. 25, p. 261).
“Dorr’s Rebellion.” Rhode Island (Vol. 23, p. 252).
Seminole War (1835–1842). Osceola (Vol. 20, p. 346).
Texas independent of Mexico (1836). Texas, History (Vol. 26, p. 692).
Houston, Sam (Vol. 13, p. 828).
Admission of Texas (1845). San Antonio, Texas (Vol. 24, p. 126).
Austin, S. F. (Vol. 2, p. 940).
Crockett, David (Vol. 7, p. 477).
Polk’s Administration. Polk, J. K. (Vol. 21, p. 983), by Prof. W. R. Smith, Bryn Mawr College.
War with Mexico (1846–1848). Taylor, Zachary (Vol. 26, p. 473), by Prof. Isaac J. Cox, University of Cincinnati.
The Generals and the Fighting. Scott, Winfield (Vol. 24, p. 475).
Santa-Ana (Vol. 24, p. 184).
Mexico, History (Vol. 18, p. 340).
Mexico City (Vol. 18, p. 347).
Wilmot Proviso and similar measures. Wilmot, David (Vol. 28, p. 691).
Cession of California (1848), and Discovery of Gold there. California, History (Vol. 5, p. 17).
The Gadsden Purchase (1853). Gadsden, James (Vol. 11, p. 383).
Compromise Measures of 1850. Compromise Measures of 1850 (Vol. 6, p. 813), by Prof. W. R. Smith, Bryn Mawr College.
Opposition in Georgia. Georgia (Vol. 11, p. 756).
Fugitive Slave Laws. Fugitive Slave Laws (Vol. 11, p. 288).
Various political elements join to oppose introduction of slavery into territories (1847–1848). Free Soil Party (Vol. 11, p. 87).
Tariff Reduction, Walker Bill of 1846. Tariff (Vol. 26, p. 425), by Prof. F. W. Taussig, Harvard University.
Walker, Robert James (Vol. 28, p. 273).
Independent Treasury System (1846). Polk, J. K. (Vol. 21, p. 983), by Prof. W. R. Smith, Bryn Mawr.
Clayton-Bulwer Treaty (1850). Clayton-Bulwer Treaty (Vol. 6, p. 475).
Clayton, John M. (Vol. 6, p. 474).
The northern boundary “Fifty-four forty or fight.” Oregon, History (Vol. 20, p. 249).
Washington, History (Vol. 28, p. 357).
New Leaders in the ’50’s.
Northern anti-slavery men. Sumner, Charles (Vol. 26, p. 81).
Seward, William H. (Vol. 24, p. 733).
Chase, Salmon P. (Vol. 5, p. 955).
Southern leaders, protecting slavery in the Territories. Davis, Jefferson (Vol. 7, p. 867), by Hon. W. W. Henry, late president of the American Historical Association, and Dr. N. D. Mereness.
Stephens, A. H. (Vol. 26, p. 887).
Northern “popular sovereignty leader.” Douglas, Stephen A. (Vol. 8, p. 446).
Attempt to uphold Fugitive Slave Law of 1850—a death blow to the Whig Party. Whig Party (Vol. 28, p. 590), by Prof. A. D. Morse, Amherst College.
The American or “Know Nothing” Party. Know Nothing Party (Vol. 15, p. 877).
Kansas-Nebraska Bill, repealing Missouri Compromise. Kansas, History (Vol. 15, p. 658).
Nebraska, History (Vol. 19, p. 330).
Origin of the Republican Party (1854). Republican Party (Vol. 23, p. 177), by Prof. A. D. Morse, Amherst College.
Opening of Japan (1854). Japan, History (Vol. 15, p. 237), by Capt. Frank Brinkley, late editor of “The Japan Mail”; author of Japan; Perry, M. C. (Vol. 21, p. 184).
Efforts to obtain Cuba in the interests of Slavery. The Ostend Manifesto (1854). Buchanan, James (Vol. 4, p. 716).
The election of 1856. Fillmore, Millard (Vol. 10, p. 344).
Fremont, John C. (Vol. 11, p. 97).
The Dred Scott decision and its effects (1857). Taney, Roger B. (Vol. 26, p. 396).
Lincoln and Douglas debates in Illinois. Senatorial contest (1858). Lincoln, Abraham (Vol. 16, p. 705), by J. G. Nicolay and C. C. Whinery.
Douglas, S. A. (Vol. 8, p. 446).
Freeport, Ill. (Vol. 11, p. 85).
John Brown’s Raid (1859). Brown, John (Vol. 4, p. 660).
Admission of Minnesota and Oregon. Minnesota, History (Vol. 17, p. 553).
Oregon, History (Vol. 20, p. 249).
The Presidential Campaign of 1860. Bell, John (Vol. 3, p. 686).
Everett, Edward (Vol. 10, p. 8), by Dr. Edward Everett Hale, author of The Man Without a Country, etc.
Lincoln elected with Hannibal Hamlin of Maine as Vice-President. Lincoln, Abraham (Vol. 16, p. 703), by John G. Nicolay, author (with John Hay) of Abraham Lincoln—a History, and C. C. Whinery, assistant editor, 11th edition, Encyclopaedia Britannica.
Hamlin, Hannibal (Vol. 12, p. 896).
Secession (1860–1861). United States, History (Vol. 27, p. 707), by the late Prof. Alexander Johnston of Princeton and C. C. Whinery.
Secession (Vol. 24, p. 568), by Prof. W. L. Fleming, Louisiana State University.
State Rights (Vol. 25, p. 802).
Organization and administration of the Confederacy. Confederate States of America (Vol. 6, p. 899), by Dr. J. C. Schwab, Yale, author of The Confederate States of America.
President Davis, Jefferson (Vol. 7, p. 867), by Hon. William Wirt Henry and N. D. Mereness.
Vice-President Stephens, Alexander H. (Vol. 25, p. 87).
Other leaders and administrators Benjamin, Judah P. (Vol. 3, p. 739).
Reagan, John H. (Vol. 22, p. 940).
Cobb, Howell (Vol. 6, p. 606).
Toombs, Robert (Vol. 27, p. 47).
Vance, Z. B. (Vol. 27, p. 882).
Commissioners to Europe Yancey, William Lowndes (Vol. 28, p. 902).
Mason, James Murray (Vol. 17, p. 839).
Slidell, John (Vol. 25, p. 241).
Secession by popular vote, May (1861). Tennessee, History (Vol. 26, p. 624).
Virginia, History (Vol. 28, p. 124).
The people of Virginia divide the State (May, 1861). West Virginia, History (Vol. 28, p. 563).

Battles and Campaigns

The main article American Civil War (Vol. 1, p. 818), by Capt. Charles F. Atkinson, author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbour, is richly supplemented with detailed accounts of the principal campaigns and battles, and biographies of military leaders on both the Federal and Confederate sides. For battles and campaigns see: Charleston (Vol. 5, p. 944); Bull Run (Vol. 4, p. 791), with map and description of both famous battles; Lexington, Mo. (Vol. 16, p. 527); Shenandoah Valley Campaigns (Vol. 24, p. 834); Yorktown (Vol. 28, p. 936); Seven Days’ Battle (Vol. 24, p. 707), both with fine maps, and written by Major George W. Redway, author of The War of Secession; Fair Oaks (Vol. 10, p. 133); Hampton Roads (Vol. 12, p. 906); Donelson, Fort (Vol. 8, p. 414); Shiloh, Battle of (Vol. 24, p. 859); Corinth (Vol. 7, p. 150); New Madrid (Vol. 19, p. 516); Perryville (Vol. 21, p. 185); Iuka (Vol. 15, p. 87); Memphis (Vol. 18, p. 107); New Orleans (Vol. 19, p. 531); Harper’s Ferry (Vol. 13, p. 14); Antietam (Vol. 2, p. 124); Fredericksburg (Vol. 11, p. 68); Stone River, Battle of (Vol. 25, p. 966); Chancellorsville (Vol. 5, p. 835), see also Wilderness (Vol. 28, p. 633); Gettysburg (Vol. 11, p. 911), with map; Vicksburg (Vol. 28, p. 21), with maps; Port Hudson (Vol. 22, p. 117); Baton Rouge (Vol. 3, p. 521); Helena, Ark. (Vol. 13, p. 219); Chickamauga Creek (Vol. 6, p. 130), with map; Chattanooga (Vol. 6, p. 7); Knoxville (Vol. 15, p. 883); Red River (Vol. 22, p. 969); Wilderness (Vol. 28, p. 633), with 4 maps, by C. F. Atkinson, author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbour; Washington (Vol. 28, p. 352); Marietta, Ga. (Vol. 17, p. 715); Atlanta (Vol. 2, p. 854); Savannah (Vol. 24, p. 241); Mobile (Vol. 18, p. 636); Galveston (Vol. 11, p. 431); Franklin, Tenn. (Vol. 11, p. 34); Nashville (Vol. 19, p. 247); Petersburg (Vol. 21, p. 301), with two maps, by Major G. W. Redway; Columbia, S. C. (Vol. 6, p. 738); Appomattox Court House (Vol. 2, p. 226); Richmond, Va. (Vol. 23, p. 311).

Union Generals

On the leaders on both sides see the biographical articles: McClellan, George Brinton (Vol. 17, p. 201); Halleck, Henry Wager (Vol. 12, p. 854); Grant, Ulysses Simpson (Vol. 12, p. 355), by John Fiske and Capt. C. F. Atkinson; Dix, John Adams (Vol. 8, p. 346); McDowell, Irvin (Vol. 17, p. 214); Burnside, Ambrose Everett (Vol. 4, p. 861); Hooker, Joseph (Vol. 13, p. 671); Meade, George Gordon (Vol. 17, p. 945); Pope, John (Vol. 22, p. 87); Buell, Don Carlos (Vol. 4, p. 751); Rosecrans, William Starke (Vol. 23, p. 734); Sherman, William Tecumseh (Vol. 24, p. 851); Thomas, George Henry (Vol. 26, p. 866); MacPherson, James Birdseye (Vol. 17, p. 268); Sheridan, Philip Henry (Vol. 24, p. 847); Slocum, Henry Warner (Vol. 25, p. 243); Butler, Benjamin Franklin (Vol. 4, p. 881); Hancock, Winfield Scott (Vol. 12, p. 909); Humphreys, Andrew Atkinson (Vol. 13, p. 891); Sedgwick, John (Vol. 24, p. 578); Reynolds, John Fulton (Vol. 23, p. 226); Warren, Gouverneur Kemble (Vol. 28, p. 329); Howard, Oliver Otis (Vol. 13, p. 833); Doubleday, Abner (Vol. 8, p. 441); Sickles, Daniel Edgar (Vol. 25, p. 36); Schurz, Carl (Vol. 24, p. 386); Devens, Charles (Vol. 8, p. 120); Butterfield, Daniel (Vol. 4, p. 890); Porter, Horace (Vol. 22, p. 116); Franklin, William Buel (Vol. 11, p. 33); Porter, Fitz-John (Vol. 22, p. 115); Shields, James (Vol. 24, p. 856); Hunt, Henry Jackson (Vol. 13, p. 934); Couch, Darius Nash (Vol. 7, p. 307); Cox, Jacob Dolson (Vol. 7, p. 352); Meagher, Thomas Francis (Vol. 17, p. 946); Sumner, Edwin Vose (Vol. 26, p. 83); Sigel, Franz (Vol. 25, p. 60); Kearny, Philip (Vol. 15, p. 707); Smith, Charles Ferguson (Vol. 25, p. 259); Smith, William Farrar (Vol. 25, p. 271); Crittenden, Thomas Leonidas (Vol. 7, p. 471); McClernand, John Alexander (Vol. 17, p. 202); Smith, Andrew Jackson (Vol. 25, p. 259); Garfield, James Abram (Vol. 11, p. 464); Wallace, Lewis (Vol. 28, p. 276); Banks, Nathaniel Prentiss (Vol. 3, p. 333); Washburn, Cadwalader Colden (Vol. 28, p. 344); Logan, John Alexander (Vol. 16, p. 866); Palmer, John McAuley (Vol. 20, p. 645); McCook, Alexander McDowell, McCook, Daniel, and McCook, John James (Vol. 17, p. 205); Smith, Morgan Lewis, and Smith, Giles Alexander (Vol. 25, p. 267); Blair, Francis Preston (Vol. 4, p. 34); Schofield, John McAllister (Vol. 24, p. 345); Newton, John (Vol. 19, p. 592); Miles, Nelson A. (Vol. 18, p. 442); Merritt, Wesley (Vol. 18, p. 173); Custer, George Armstrong (Vol. 7, p. 668); Stoneman, George (Vol. 25, p. 962); Wilson, James Harrison (Vol. 28, p. 695); Tracy, Benjamin Franklin (Vol. 27, p. 127); Lyon, Nathaniel (Vol. 17, p. 173); Farragut, David Glasgow (Vol. 10, p. 187); Porter, David Dixon (Vol. 22, p. 113); Foote, Andrew Hull (Vol. 10, p. 625); Cushing, William Barker (Vol. 7, p. 667).