Physics and Chemistry
Some of the Authorities
The departments of physics and physical chemistry are of course those in which the Britannica’s scientific contents especially interest those to whom this chapter is addressed, and the authority of the Britannica in those departments of knowledge is shown by a very striking fact. You may remember that Alfred Nobel, the great Swedish chemist, who made a fortune by the invention and manufacture of dynamite, devoted $9,000,000 to the establishment of the annual Nobel prizes, to be awarded, irrespective of nationality, for eminence in scientific research and in the cause of peace. In physics and chemistry, Britannica contributors have won, in eleven years, seven of these prizes, these winners being: in 1901, Prof. J. H. van’t Hoff, of the University of Berlin; in 1902, Prof. Lorentz, of the University of Leiden; in 1904, Lord Rayleigh, Chancellor of the University of Cambridge; in 1906, Sir J. J. Thomson, of the University of Cambridge; in 1909, Prof. Ostwald, of the University of Leipzig; in 1911, Prof. Van der Waals, of the University of Amsterdam. In other words, you find that the scientific committee who award the Nobel prizes select for these unique distinctions the same men whom the editor of the Britannica selected as contributors. Now apply another test, in connection with the subject matter of this chapter. What is, by general consent, the most exquisitely finished product of any of the industries under discussion in the present section? To this question there can be but one answer: Optical glass. Where is the best glass made? At the Zeiss Works in Jena, Germany. Very well, Dr. Otto Henker and Dr. Eppenstein, both of the scientific staff of the Zeiss Works, wrote the optical articles in the Britannica which deal with the lens and with aberration in lenses. You should therefore remember, in reading the Britannica, that whether you are only going as far as the uppermost layer of knowledge, or reaching down to the very foundations of science, the men whose articles you are reading command the respect that you can pay to them by giving your very closest attention. Do not imagine that because the book contains forty-four million words, it is made to be skimmed; every article in it is condensed; and you cannot derive the fullest benefit from your reading unless you feel, as you would feel if you were fortunate enough to be brought into personal contact with any of these great men, that you have a privilege of which you must make the most.
Metals
Other chapters of this Guide also deal in detail with the scientific side of the industries mentioned here; and in examining the groups of industrial articles, those dealing with metals claim first consideration. The article Metal (Vol. 18, p. 198) is devoted to classification only, and would not occupy more than ten pages of this Guide. It contains information as to the physical properties of the metals, including a table in which the specific gravity of each of 42 metals is stated, a table of comparative ductility under the hammer, for rolling and for wire drawing, a table of elasticities, and other tables showing the ratio of expansion under heat, the melting and boiling points, and the relative thermic and electric conductivity. A section is devoted to the action of chemical agents upon the simple metals.
Metallurgy (Vol. 18, p. 203), and Electrometallurgy (Vol. 9, p. 232), by W. G. McMillan, lecturer on metallurgy at Mason College, Birmingham, deal with all the methods of smelting ores. Your next reading should be the great article Iron and Steel (Vol. 14, p. 801), by Prof. H. M. Howe, of Columbia University, containing as much matter as would fill 110 pages of this Guide. At the beginning of this article Prof. Howe disposes of the much discussed question as to the true distinction between iron and steel, as to which there has been great confusion. Before 1860, the word “steel” was never applied to a metal that could not be hardened by tempering. But when the invention of the Bessemer and open-hearth processes introduced a new class of iron, “which lacked the essential property of steel, the hardening power, yet differed from the existing forms of wrought iron in freedom from slag,” the men interested in the new product did not like to call it “wrought iron,” which is what it really is, because that name would confuse it with a lower-priced grade of metal. They ought to have coined a new word for it, but they appropriated the name of steel—so that to-day “steel” means either true steel or the low-carbon, slagless variety of malleable iron. The article is divided into 133 sections, so that to analyze its contents would swamp this chapter of the Guide, but the reader will find in it the clearest and most authoritative account of the industry which has yet been published.
Among articles on the commercial metals are Copper (Vol. 7, p. 102), Lead (Vol. 16, p. 314), Tin (Vol. 26, p. 995), Zinc (Vol. 28, p. 981), Aluminium (Vol. 1, p. 767), Nickel (Vol. 19, p. 658), Antimony (Vol. 2, p. 127), and, on the precious metals, Gold (Vol. 12, p. 192), Silver (Vol. 25, p. 112), and Platinum (Vol. 21, p. 805).
The article Alloys, of which Sir W. C. Roberts-Austen, long chemist of the London Mint, is the chief contributor, with its photomicrographic illustrations, contains not only an account of the alloys already generally used in the metal industries, but also practical information as to the experiments which have been made recently with some of the newly discovered rare earths. In the article Metallography (Vol. 18, p. 202), by the same specialist, the microscopic examination and photography of metals and alloys is described.
Among articles on the metallic compounds are Brass (Vol. 4, p. 433), in which “Dutch metal,” “Mannheim gold,” “similor” and “pinchbeck” are described; Bronze (Vol. 4, p. 639), which deals with steel bronze, phosphor bronze, and other combinations; Fusible Metal (Vol. 11, p. 369) is an important compound. Pewter (Vol. 21, p. 338), by Malcolm Bell, author of Pewter Plate, etc., is of historical interest, and of value to the dealer or collector, while he who wishes to distinguish between the older and the more modern electroplated ware is referred to the article Sheffield Plate (Vol. 24, p. 824), also by Malcolm Bell. Electroplating (Vol. 9, p. 237) describes the art that put an end to the Sheffield plate industry. Other methods of coating metals are given under Galvanized Iron (Vol. 11, p. 428), Tin Plate and Terne Plate (Vol. 26, p. 1000), and Gilding (Vol. 12, p. 13). The art of making gold-leaf is described in Goldbeating (Vol. 12, p. 202).
In regard to manufacturing processes there are the separate articles: Forging (Vol. 10, p. 663), with 19 illustrations; Founding (Vol. 10, p. 743), with 11 illustrations; Annealing, Hardening and Tempering (Vol. 2, p. 70), and Brazing and Soldering (Vol. 4, p. 463). These four articles are by J. G. Horner. And see Welding (Vol. 28, p. 500), also by Mr. Horner, with a section on Electro-Welding, by Elihu Thomson, inventor of the process of electric welding and expert for the General Electric Co. The article Tool (Vol. 27, p. 14), another of Mr. Horner’s valuable contributions, has 79 illustrations and possesses special interest for the manufacturer of metal-ware as well as the dealer in hardware.