[508] Note by Leo.—"Except in the cities acquired latest, and by capitulation from the Romans"—i.e. the Greek Empire.
[509] Guizot, Essais, pp. 199-201; Stubbs, i, 277. Cp. refs. in Buckle, author's ed. p. 348-49.
[510] Europe during the Middle Ages, ch. ii, pt. ii, end. Compare Hodgkin on "the Feudal Anarchy which history has called, with unintended irony, the Feudal System," and on the fashion in which, in the capitularies of Charlemagne, "we have imperial sanction given to that most anti-social of all feudal practices, the levying of private war" (Italy and her Invaders, viii, 301-2).
[511] Short History, p. 15. "The liberated agricultural classes multiplied rapidly, and brought vast tracts of abandoned soil under cultivation" (Boulting, p. 27). It probably needed such an expansion, we may note, to make possible the Crusades.
[512] Sismondi finally decides that in the tenth century feudalism had induced in the main rather a dissolution than an organisation of society (Républiques, i, 85-91). Cp. Guizot, History de la civ. en France, as cited, iii, 103, 272-75, iv, 77-79; Essais, v; and Boulting, p. 17.
[513] Cp. Sismondi, Républiques, i, 105-14.
[514] See Neander, Church History, Eng. tr., vii, 128 sq. and Milman, Hist. Latin Christ., lv, 61 sq., as to Hildebrandt's efforts to win public opinion to his side against clerical marriage, and the resulting growth of private judgment.
[515] "Die Abtheilung in Zünfte und die daran sich anknüpfende Markt-polizei mögen die einzigen Institute aus römischer Zeit sein, die sich auch unter den Longobarden erhielten" (Leo, i, 85; cp. p. 335). Cp. Villari, Two First Centuries, Eng. trans, pp. 95-99.
[516] Leo decides (i, 335) that in Ravenna between 1031 and 1115 there appear "gar keine Stadtconsuln in Urkunden, aber wohl Leute, die sich ex genere consulum nennen." Cp. Boulting-Sismondi, p. 58.
[517] As the general governor elected by the Venetians to stay their dissensions (697) bore the title of doge or duke, which was that borne by the Greek governors of Italian provinces, the influence of imperial example must be admitted, especially as Venice continued to profess allegiance to the Greek empire. The cities of Naples, Gaeta, and Amalfi, again, while connected only nominally and commercially with Byzantium, gave the title of doge to their first magistrate likewise (Sismondi, Short History, pp. 25, 26).