History for ready reference, Volume 6

by J. N. Larned

officials have collected handsome sums. The liberal donation
of Germany at the instigation of the Emperor has already been
publicly acknowledged. The United States, both through direct
contributions to the fund and by means of
privately-distributed gifts of money and grain, have once more
shown their vivid sympathy with England's mission and India's
need."
INDIA: A. D. 1901.
Census of the Empire.
Decrease of population in several of the Native States.
The Indian census, begun on the 1st of March, 1901, was
completed for the entire empire in fourteen days, the result
being announced on the 15th. It showed a total population in
British territory of 231,085,000, against 221,266,000 in 1891;
in Native States 63,181,000, against 66,050,000 in 1891; total
for all India, 294,266,000, against 287,317,000 in 1891. The
Native States, it will be seen, have declined in population to
the extent of nearly 3,000,000, showing greater severity in
those states of the effects of famine and disease. In several
provinces, however, of the British territory, a decrease of
population appears: Berar declining from 2,897,000 in 1891 to
1,491,000 in 1901; Bombay (British Presidency) from 15,957,000
to 15,330,000; Central Provinces from 10,784,000 to 9,845,000;
Aden from 44,000 to 41,000; Coorg from 173,000 to 170,000. Of
the Native States the greatest loss of population was suffered
in Rajputana, which sank from 12,016,000 to 9,841,000; in
Central India, where the numbers fell from 10,318,000 to
8,501,000; and in the Bombay States, which were reduced in
population from 8,059,000 to 6,891,000. The provinces in
British India which show the greatest percentage of gain are
Upper and Lower Burma, Assam and Sind. The present population
of the greater British provinces is as follows: Bengal,
74,713,000; Madras, 38,208,000; Northwest provinces,
34,812,000; Punjab, 22,449,000.
INDIA: A. D. 1901 (February).
Continued famine.
On the 24th of January, 1901, the Viceroy of India reported to
the British Government, by telegram, that the winter rainfall
had been unusually good in Upper India, Rajputana, Central
Provinces, and Central India, and agricultural prospects were
very favorable: but that in Gujarat, Deccan, and the Karnatik
districts of Bombay, through the early cessation of the
monsoon in September and the absence of rain, the crop
prospects were bad and serious distress was expected between
then and August. Relief measures would be required. The
affected district included Baroda and part of Haidarabad. On
the 14th of February the Viceroy reported further that the
number on the relief works and gratuitous relief showed little
increase, but greater pressure was expected in the affected
area after the reaping of the scanty harvests there.
{263}
In Upper
and Central India some damage by storm and damp had been done
to crops which promised to be very good. The number of persons
then in receipt of relief was:
Bombay, 176,000;
Bombay Native States, 17,000;
Baroda, 15,000;
Haidarabad, 2,000;
Madras, 3,000;
Central India States, 1,000.
Total, 214,000.
INDIA: A. D. 1901 (February).
Creation of a new administrative province on the
northwestern frontier.
A despatch from Calcutta, February 13, announced the
determination of the government of India to create "a new
frontier agency or province, formed out of the four
trans-Indus districts of the Punjab, under an Agent to the
Governor-General of similar status to the Agent in
Baluchistan, with revenue and judicial commissioners, all the
officers being under the Supreme Government and enrolled in
the Political Department. The districts which form the new
province will be Peshawar, Kohat, Bannu, and Dera Ismail Khan,
with the tribal country beyond their limits, and also the
existing political agencies of Dir, Swat, Chitral, the
Khaibar, the Kuram, Tochi, and Wana. The scheme takes as
little as possible away from the Punjab, while making a
compact charge, easily controllable by one officer."
INDIA: A. D. 1901 (February).
Message of King Edward VII. to the princes and people.
See (in this volume)
ENGLAND: A. D. 1901 (JANUARY-FEBRUARY).
INDIANAPOLIS CONVENTION, and Monetary Commission, The.
See (in this volume)
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1896-1898.
INDIANS, The American: A. D. 1893-1899.
Negotiations and agreements with the Five Civilized Tribes.
Work of the Dawes Commission.
In his annual Message to the Congress of the United States,
December 7, 1896, President Cleveland made the following
reference to the work of a commission created in 1893, for
negotiating with what are known as the Five Civilized Tribes
of Indians: "The condition of affairs among the Five Civilized
Tribes, who occupy large tracts of land in the Indian
Territory and who have governments of their own, has assumed
such an aspect as to render it almost indispensable that there
should be an entire change in the relations of these Indians
to the General Government. This seems to be necessary in
furtherance of their own interests, as well as for the
protection of non-Indian residents in their territory. A
commission organized and empowered under several recent laws
is now negotiating with these Indians for the relinquishment
of their courts and the division of their common lands in
severalty, and are aiding in the settlement of the troublesome
question of tribal membership. The reception of their first
proffers of negotiation was not encouraging, but through
patience and such conduct on their part as demonstrated that
their intentions were friendly and in the interest of the
tribes the prospect of success has become more promising. The
effort should be to save these Indians from the consequences
of their own mistakes and improvidence and to secure to the
real Indian his rights as against intruders and professed
friends who profit by his retrogression. A change is also
needed to protect life and property through the operation of
courts conducted according to strict justice and strong enough
to enforce their mandates. As a sincere friend of the Indian,
I am exceedingly anxious that these reforms should be
accomplished with the consent and aid of the tribes and that
no necessity may be presented for radical or drastic
legislation."
United States,
Message and Documents
(Abridgment, 1896-1897).
The Act of March 3, 1893, by which the commission was created,
set forth its character, its duties and its powers, as
follows: "The President shall nominate and, by and with the
advice and consent of the Senate, shall appoint three
commissioners to enter into negotiations with the Cherokee
Nation, the Choctaw Nation, the Chickasaw Nation, the Muscogee
(or Creek) Nation, the Seminole Nation, for the purpose of
extinguishment of the national or tribal title to any lands
within that territory now held by any and all of such nations
or tribes, either by cession of the same or some part thereof
to the United States, or by the allotment and division of the
same in severalty among the Indians of such nations or tribes,
respectively, as may be entitled to the same, or by such other
method as may be agreed upon between the several nations and
tribes aforesaid, or each of them, with the United States,
with a view to such an adjustment, upon the basis of justice
and equity, as may, with the consent of such nations or tribes
of Indians, so far as may be necessary, be requisite and
suitable to enable the ultimate creation of a State or States
of the Union which shall embrace the lands within said Indian
Territory. …
"Such commissioners shall, under such regulations and
directions as shall be prescribed by the President, through
the Secretary of the Interior, enter upon negotiation with the
several nations of Indians as aforesaid in the Indian
Territory, and shall endeavor to procure, first, such
allotment of lands in severalty to the Indians belonging to
each such nation, tribe, or band, respectively, as may be
agreed upon as just and proper to provide for each such Indian
a sufficient quantity of land for his or her needs, in such
equal distribution and apportionment as may be found just and
suited to the circumstances; for which purpose, after the
terms of such an agreement shall have been arrived at, the
said commissioners shall cause the land of any such nation, or
tribe, or band to be surveyed and the proper allotment to be
designated; and, secondly, to procure the cession, for such
price and upon such terms as shall be agreed upon, of any
lands not found necessary to be so allotted or divided, to the
United States; and to make proper agreements for the
investment or holding by the United States of such moneys as
may be paid or agreed to be paid to such nation, or tribes, or
bands, or to any of the Indians thereof, for the extinguishment
of their [title?] therein. But said commissioners shall,
however, have power to negotiate any and all such agreements
as, in view of all the circumstances affecting the subject,
shall be found requisite and suitable to such an arrangement
of the rights and interests and affairs of such nations,
tribes, bands, or Indians, or any of them, to enable the
ultimate creation of a Territory of the United States with a
view to the admission of the same as a State in the Union."
{264}
A subsequent Act, of March 2, 1895, authorized the appointment
of two additional members of the commission; and an Act of
June 10, 1896, provided that "said commission is further
authorized and directed to proceed at once to hear and
determine the application of all persons who may apply to them
for citizenship in any of said nations, and after said hearing
they shall determine the right of said applicant to be so
admitted and enrolled. … That the said commission … shall
cause a complete roll of citizenship of each of said nations
to be made up from their records, and add thereto the names of
citizens whose right may be conferred under this act, and said
rolls shall be, and are hereby, made rolls of citizenship of
said nations or tribes, subject, however, to the determination
of the United States courts, as provided herein."
A further Act of Congress, known as the Curtis Act, June 28,
1898, ratified, with some amendments, an agreement made by the
commission with the Choctaws and Chickasaws, in April. 1897,
and with the Creeks in September of that year, to become
effective if ratified by a majority of the voters of those
tribes at an election held prior to December 1, 1898. In the
annual report, for 1899, made by the commission (of which the
Honorable Henry L. Dawes, of Massachusetts, is chairman, and
which is often referred to as "the Dawes Commission,") the
following account of results is given: "A special election was
called by the executives of the Choctaw and Chickasaw nations
to be held August 24, and the votes cast were counted in the
presence of the Commission to the Five Civilized Tribes at
Atoka, August 30, resulting in the ratification of the
agreement by a majority of seven hundred ninety-eight votes.
Proclamation thereof was duly made, and the 'Atoka agreement,'
so called, is therefore now in full force and effect in the
Choctaw and Chickasaw nations. Chief Isparhecher of the Creeks
was slow to call an election, and it was not until November 1,
1898, that the agreement with that tribe was submitted in its
amended form for ratification. While no active interest was
manifested, the full-bloods and many of the freedmen were
opposed to the agreement and it failed of ratification by
about one hundred and fifty votes. …
"The Cherokees now began to realize the sensations of 'a man
without a country,' and again created a commission at a
general session of the national council in November, 1898,
clothed with authority to negotiate an agreement with the
United States. The earlier efforts of this commission to
conclude an agreement with that tribe were futile, owing to
the disinclination of the Cherokee commissioners to accede to
such propositions as the Government had to offer. The
commission now created was limited in its power to negotiate
to a period of thirty days. The United States Commission had
advertised appointments in Mississippi extending from December
19, 1898, to January 7, 1899, for the purpose of identifying
the Mississippi Choctaws, a duty imposed upon the commission
by the act of June 28, 1898, but on receiving a communication
from the chairman of the Cherokee Commission requesting a
conference it was deemed desirable to postpone the
appointments in Mississippi and meet the Cherokee Commission,
which it did on December 19, 1898, continuing negotiations
until January 14, 1899, producing the agreement which is
appended hereto. In the meantime the Creeks had, by act of
council, created another commission with authority to
negotiate an agreement with the United States, and a
conference was accorded it immediately upon conclusion of the
negotiations with the Cherokees, continuing to February 1,
1899, when an agreement was concluded. The agreement with the
Cherokees was ratified by the tribe at a special election held
January 31, 1899, by a majority of two thousand one hundred six
votes, and that with the Creeks on February 18, 1899, by a
majority of four hundred eighty-five.
"While these agreements do not in all respects embody those
features which the commission desired, they were the best
obtainable, and the result of most serious, patient, and
earnest consideration, covering many days of arduous labor.
The commissions were many times on the point of suspending
negotiations, there having arisen propositions upon the part
of one of the commissions which the other was unwilling to
accept. Particularly were the tribal commissioners determined
to fix a maximum and minimum value for the appraisement of
lands, while this commission was equally vigorous in its views
that the lands should be appraised at their actual value,
excluding improvements, without limitations in order that an
equal division might be made. The propositions finally agreed
upon were the result of a compromise, without which no
agreement could have been reached. The desirability, if not
the absolute necessity, of securing a uniform land tenure
among the Five Tribes leads the commission to recommend that
these agreements, with such modifications and amendments as
may be deemed wise and proper, be ratified by Congress. …
"The Choctaw and Chickasaw governments, in a limited way, are
continued, by agreement, to March 4, 1906, and certain of
their laws are therefore effective within the territory of
those tribes. A similar condition exists as to the Seminoles,
with which an agreement was concluded at the close of the year
1897. To supply needed laws to replace various tribal statutes
which had by Congress been made inoperative, the laws of
Arkansas pertaining to certain matters have been extended over
Indian Territory. The Federal laws have been made to apply to
still other subjects, and officials under the Interior
Department are charged with the enforcement of rules and
regulations governing still further matters, and so on. So
complicated and complex a state of affairs does this system of
jurisprudence present that the people are dazed and often
unable to determine what is law and who is authorized to
enforce it. Indeed, none other than an able lawyer can
reasonably hope to understand the situation, and even he must
be content to look upon certain phases of it as not being
susceptible of solution.
"Conditions are not yet ripe for the immediate installation of
a Territorial or State government. 'Tis a consummation
devoutly to be wished,' but wholly impracticable at this time
for various reasons, not the least of which is found in the
fact that there are four non-citizens in Indian Territory to
every citizen. The non-citizen does not own a foot of soil,
save as provisions have recently been made for the segregation
and sale of town sites, and with a voice in legislation, the
non-citizen would soon legislate the Indian into a state of
innocuous desuetude. On the other hand, it would be manifestly
unjust and at ill-accord with the spirit of our institutions
to deny the right of franchise to so great a number of people,
in all respects otherwise entitled to enjoy that prerogative.
{265}
Another very serious obstacle to the establishment of a
territorial form of government is the lack of uniform land
tenures. The commission indulges in the hope and belief that
at no great distant date some method may be devised whereby
the lands of all the Five Tribes may be subjected to a uniform
tenure. It will be seen that the legislative feature of the
popular form of government is not possible at this time, and
while legislation by Congress for all the petty needs of the
Territory is impracticable in the highest degree, the more
urgent requirements of the people must be met by this means
for the present. The judicial branch is well represented by
the United States courts. …
"The commission, in conclusion, most earnestly urges the
importance of adequate appropriations for pushing to an early
completion the work contemplated by the various laws and
agreements under which a transformation is to be wrought in
Indian Territory. The all-important and most urgent duty now
devolving upon the Government of the United States incident to
the translation of conditions among the Five Tribes is the
allotment of lands in severalty, and the most pressing and
essential preliminary steps toward that end are the completion
of citizenship rolls, the appraisement of lands, and the
subdivision of sections into forty-acre tracts, all of which
have been already discussed in detail in this report. The
commission believes that the enrollment of citizens is
progressing as rapidly as the nature of the work will permit,
and unless some unforeseen obstacle arises to prevent, the
rolls in four of the nations will be completed and delivered
to the Secretary during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1900,
and very material progress made in the fifth."
Sixth Annual Report of the Commission
to the Five Civilized Tribes, 1899,
page 66-67, and 9-29.
INDIANS, AMERICAN: A. D. 1898.
Outbreak in northern Minnesota.
An alarming outbreak of hostility on the part of some of the
Indians of the Leech Lake Reservation in northern Minnesota
occurred in October, 1898, provoked, as was afterwards shown,
by gross frauds and abuses on the part of certain of the
officials with whom they had to deal. They had been shamefully
defrauded in the sale of their timber lands, which the
government assumed to undertake for their benefit; but the
immediate Cause of trouble appeared to be a scandalous
practice on the part of deputy marshals, who made arrests
among them for trivial reasons, conveyed prisoners and
witnesses to the federal court at St. Paul, in order to obtain
fees and mileage, and left them to make their way home again
as they could. The outbreak began on the arrest of a chief of
the Pillager band of Chippewas, on Bear Island. He was to be
taken to St. Paul as a witness in a case of alleged
whiskey-selling; but his followers rescued him. The marshal,
thereupon, called for military aid, and a company of United
States infantry was sent to the Reservation. They were
ambuscaded by the Indians and suffered a loss of 5 killed and
16 wounded. The Pillager band was joined by Indians from
neighboring tribes, and all in the region were dangerously
excited by the event, while the whites were in great dread of
a general Indian war. But reinforcements of troops were
promptly sent to the scene, and peace was soon
restored,—measures being taken to remedy the wrongs of which
the Indians complained.
INDIANS, AMERICAN: A. D. 1899-1900.
The recent Indian policy of the government, and its results.
Indian schools and education.
Present Indian population.
"This, then, is the present Indian policy of the nation,—to
fit the Indian for civilization and to absorb him into it. It
is a national work. It is less than twenty-five years since
the government turned from the policy of keeping him on
reservations, as quiet as possible, out of the way of
civilization, waiting, with no excess of patience, for the
race to fade out of existence and to cease from troubling. It
was in 1877 that the nation made the first appropriation from
its own treasury to fit for its own citizenship this portion
of the human race living under its own flag and constitution,
but without legal status or constitutional immunities. … The
first appropriation was a mere pittance of $20,000; it was
given only after a hard struggle. But the first step met with
encouragement, and the next year the sum was increased to
$30,000, and then to $60,000, and in two years more it became
$125,000. The policy has at last so grown in public confidence
that, while there is still much discussion of the best methods
of expenditure, not a word is heard among the lawgivers for
its abandonment. It has in the meantime so broadened in its
scope that the appropriations for this work have increased
from year to year, till this year (1899) it has risen to
$2,638,390. … There are now 148 well-equipped boarding schools
and 295 day schools, engaged in the education of 24,004
children, with an average attendance of 19,671. How near this
comes to including the whole number of children of school age,
in a total population of a quarter of a million of Indians,
every inquirer can form a pretty close estimate for himself.
No one will deny that, at this rate of progress, the
facilities for the education of Indian children will soon
reach, if they have not already reached, those enjoyed by
their white neighbors in the remote regions of the West. The
results thus far are of a most encouraging character.
"But the work does not stop with the rising generation of the
race; it embraces also the adult Indian. … Soon after the
beginning of appropriations for Indian schools, Congress, in
what is called the Severalty Act, provided for every Indian
capable of appreciating its value, and who chose to take it, a
homestead of one hundred and sixty acres to heads of families,
and a smaller number to other members, inalienable and
untaxable for twenty-five years, to be selected by him on the
reservation of his tribe. If he prefer to abandon his tribe
and go elsewhere, he may take his allotment anywhere on the
public domain, free of charge. No English baron has a safer
title to his manor than has each Indian to his homestead. He
cannot part with it for twenty-five years without the consent
of Congress, nor can the United States, without his consent,
be released from a covenant to defend his possession for the
same period. This allotment carries with it also all the
rights, privileges, and immunities of an American citizen;
opens to these Indians, as to all other citizens, the doors of
all the courts; and extends to them the protection of all the
laws, national and state, which affect any other citizen. Any
Indian, if he prefers not to be a farmer, incumbered with one
of these homesteads, may become a citizen of the United
States, and reside and prosecute any calling in any part of
the United States, as securely under this law as anyone else,
by taking up his residence separate and apart from his tribe,
and adopting the habits of civilized life. Thus every door of
opportunity is thrown wide open to every adult Indian, as well
as to those of the next generation.
{266}
"This recognition of the home and family as a force in Indian
civilization became a part of the present policy of dealing
with the race only twelve years ago. These are some of its
results: 55,467 individual Indians, including a few under
former treaty stipulations, have taken their allotments,
making an aggregate of 6,708,628 acres. Of these, 30,000 now
hold complete patents to their homes, and the rest are
awaiting the perfection and delivery of their title deeds. …
Not alone in these statistics are manifest the evidences of
permanent advance of the race toward the goal of orderly,
self-supporting citizenship. Bloody Indian wars have ceased.
The slaughter of warring clans and the scalping of women and
children fleeing from burning wigwams are no longer recorded.
Geronimo himself has become a teacher of peace. The recent
unfortunate difficulty with the Chippewas in Minnesota, caused
more by lack of white than of red civilization, is no
exception. We are at peace with the Indian all along the
border, and the line between the Indian and the white
settlements is fast fading out."
H. L. Dawes, Have we failed with the Indian?
(Atlantic Monthly, August, 1899).
"Indian education is accomplished through the means of
nonreservation boarding schools, reservation boarding schools,
and reservation and independent day schools, all under
complete Government control, State and Territorial public
schools, contract day and boarding schools, and mission day
and boarding schools. The Indian school system aims to provide
a training which will prepare the Indian boy or girl for the
every day life of the average American citizen. It does not
contemplate, as some have supposed on a superficial
examination, an elaborate preparation for a collegiate course
through an extended high-school curriculum. The course of
instruction in these schools is limited to that usually taught
in the common schools of the country. Shoe and harness making,
tailoring, blacksmithing, masonry work, plastering, brick
making and laying, etc., are taught at the larger
nonreservation schools, not, it is true, with the
elaborateness of special training as at the great polytechnic
institutions of the country, but on a scale suited to the
ability and future environment of the Indian. There are
special cases, however, where Indian boys are, and have been,
trained so thoroughly that their work compares favorably with
that of the white mechanic. … Phoenix, Haskell, Albuquerque,
and other institutions, have well-organized schools of
domestic science, where the girls are practically taught the
art of preparing a wholesome meal, such as appears on the
tables of persons of moderate means. …
"Nonreservation schools … are as a rule the largest
institutions devoted to Indian education. As indicated by
their designation, they are situated off the reservations and
usually near cities or populous districts, where the object
lessons of white civilization are constantly presented to the
pupils. They are recruited principally from the day and
boarding schools on the reservations. The majority are
supported by special appropriations made by Congress, and are
adapted to the teaching of trades, etc., in a more extended
degree than are schools on the reservations. The largest of
these schools is situated at Carlisle, Pennsylvania, where
there are accommodations for 1,000 pupils; the next largest is
at Phoenix, Arizona, with a capacity for 700; the third, at
Lawrence, Kansas, and known as Haskell Institute,
accommodating 600 pupils. These three large schools are types
of their class, and are not restricted in territory as to
collection of pupils. Chemawa school, near Salem, Oregon, and
Chilocco school, near Arkansas City, Oklahoma, are types of
the medium-sized schools, and each has a capacity of 400
pupils. The remainder of the schools are of less capacity and
have not been developed so highly. There are altogether 25 of
these schools. …
"There are 81 boarding schools located on the different
reservations, an increase of 11 over last year. At these
institutions the same general line of policy is pursued as at
the nonreservation schools. Frequently located far from the
centers of civilization, conditions are different, and their
conduct must be varied to suit their own special environment.
Many were formerly mission schools and army posts, unsuited to
Indian school purposes, but by constant modification are being
brought into general harmony with the system. … Government day
schools are small schools with capacity for 30 or 40 pupils
each. As a rule they are located at remote points on the
reservations, and are conducted by a teacher and a
housekeeper. A small garden, some stock, and tools are
furnished, and the rudiments of industrial education are given
the boys; and the girls are taught the use of the needle in
mending and sewing, and of the washtub in cleanliness. … There
were 147 day schools in operation during the year, an increase
of 5 over last year."
The number of government schools reported for the year 1900
was 253, total enrollment, 22,124, average attendance, 17,860;
contract schools, 32, with an enrollment of 2,806, average
attendance, 2,451; public and mission schools, 22, with an
enrollment of 1,521, and an average attendance of 1,257; the
aggregate being 307 schools, with an enrollment of 26,451, and
an average attendance of 21,568. "Statistics of the schools
for the New York Indians are not included in the above, for
the reason that as they are cared for by the State of New York
this office has no jurisdiction over them. … The Indian
population of the United States under the control of the
Indian Office (excluding the Five Civilized Tribes) was
187,312 in 1899, which would give a scholastic population of
between 45,000 and 47,000. Deduct 30 per cent for the sick and
otherwise disabled, and those in white schools or away from
the direct control of the office, and it would leave about
34,000 children for whom educational facilities should be
provided. There are now 26,000 of them in school, leaving
about 8,000 unprovided for."
Annual Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs,
1900, pages 15-23.
{267}
"Taking the concurrent facts of history and experience into
consideration, it can, with a great degree of confidence, be
stated that the Indian population of the United States has
been very little diminished from the days of Columbus,
Coronado, Raleigh, Captain John Smith, and other early
explorers." The number of Indians in the United States in the
year 1900, according to the report of the Indian Office, was
272,023. This excludes "the Indians of Alaska, but includes
the New York Indians (5,334) and the Five Civilized Tribes in
Indian Territory (84,750)—a total population of 90,084. These
Indians are often separated from the others in statistics
because they have separate school and governmental systems."
Annual Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs,
1900, pages 47-49.
INDONESIAN RACE.
See (in this volume)
PHILIPPINE ISLANDS: THE NATIVE INHABITANTS.
INDUSTRIAL ARBITRATION.
See (in this volume)
NEW ZEALAND: A. D. 1891-1900; and
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1898 (JUNE).
INDUSTRIAL COMBINATIONS.
See (in this volume)
TRUSTS; UNITED STATES.
INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION, The United States.
See (in this volume)
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1898 (JUNE).
INDUSTRIAL DISTURBANCES, Wide-spread: A. D. 1895-1896.
Strike of glassworkers in France.
A great strike of French glass workers, beginning in the
summer of 1895, ended the following January in a lockout of
the men, leaving thousands without means of subsistence.
INDUSTRIAL DISTURBANCES, Wide-spread: A. D. 1897.
The great dispute in the British engineering trades.
"The strike originated in an effort on the part of some of the
men employed in London to introduce the eight-hour day. As a
consequence of this movement, the Employers' Federation voted,
on July 1st, that in case the threatened movement in favor of
eight hours should be carried out 'notices will immediately be
given by the members of the associations affiliated to the
federation that a reduction of hands of 25 per cent. will take
place of the members of such unions in their employment.' This
challenge of the employers was quickly taken up by the
Unionists. The Amalgamated Society at once gave instructions
that in all cases in which notices of lockout were issued to
25 per cent. of their members, the remaining 75 per cent.
should hand in notices to cease work at the same time. The
result was the inauguration of a dispute, which took in part
the form of a lockout, in part that of a strike, but which
from the beginning was carried on with an ominous display of
bitterness and obstinacy on both sides. The membership of the
different societies concerned in the dispute was estimated, by
the Labor Gazette in July, at over 109,000. All of these were
not, of course, actually on strike. … It seems as if the
employers had been quite ready to enter into this contest with
the view of crushing the union, or at least of teaching it a
lesson; but the result is a very widespread industrial
conflict, which is producing results far beyond those
immediately concerned."
Yale Review
(November, 1897).
"The number of work people directly affected by the dispute
was about 25,000 at the outset, but as the area of the dispute
widened the number of firms and of workmen involved gradually
increased, until the lock-out involved 702 firms and 35,000
workmen directly and 12,500 indirectly. … Though the immediate
cause of the general dispute was the demand for an eight
hours' day in London, the real questions at issue between the
parties had become of a much more far-reaching kind, and now
involved the questions of workshop control and the limits of
trade union interference. During October and November
negotiations under the Conciliation Act took place between the
Board of Trade and the representatives of the parties with a
view to arrange a conference between them. As a result of the
correspondence both sides assented to the following basis for
a conference suggested by the Board of Trade:
1. The Federated Employers, while disavowing any intention of
interfering with the legitimate action of trade unions, will
admit no interference with the management of their business.
The Trade Unions on their part, while maintaining their right
of combination, disavow any intention of interfering with the
management of the business of the employers.
2. The notices demanding a 48 hours' week served on the
Federated Employers in London without previous request for a
conference are withdrawn.
3. A conference between representatives of the Federated
Employers and the Trade Unions concerned in the dispute shall
be held forthwith. …
Pending the conference the employers agreed to suspend all
pending lockout notices, and the Unions not to interfere in
any way with men in employment. …
"The sittings were held on November 24th and two following
days, and again on November 30th and three following days,
after which an adjournment took place until December 14th in
order to allow the men to vote as to the acceptance or
otherwise of the proposals made by the employers. … When the
Conference resumed its sittings on December 14th the result of
the ballot of the men was declared to be:—For the terms, 752;
against, 68,966. Discussion of the proposals was, however,
resumed and continued over four days by a sub-committee of
three representatives on each side, who consulted with their
colleagues when necessary. The terms were somewhat amended. …
On submitting these amended conditions to the vote of the men
1,041 voted in favour of their acceptance and 54,933 against.
The truce which had been arranged over the period of
negotiations was brought to an end by this vote, and fresh
notices of lock-out were given in various centres, which
considerably increased the numbers affected. …
"On January 13th, however, an important change was made in the
position of the men. The London Joint Committee, the body
which took the first actual step in the dispute by ordering
strike notices to be given in certain London shops, passed the
following resolution:—That we intimate to the Employers'
Federation that the demand for an eight hours' day, or
forty-eight hours' week be withdrawn. That before such
intimation is given the above resolution to be sent to the
Executive Councils of the Societies represented on the Joint
Committee for their approval or otherwise. … This resolution
received the approval of the trade unions concerned, and the
withdrawal of the demand for a 48 hours' week was intimated to
the Employers' Federation, which, however, still insisted on
the acceptance by the unions of the 'conditions of management
mutually adjusted at the recent Westminster Conference' as a
condition of returning to work. The men asked that the
employers' notes and explanations should be read as part of
the proposed agreement, and eventually, after renewed
negotiations between the parties, a provisional agreement was
arrived at and submitted to the votes of the men, who ratified
it by 28,588 to 13,727. The final agreement was signed in
London on January 28th, and work was resumed in the following
week. …
{268}
"Naturally, after so long a stoppage the resumption of work by
the men was a gradual process, but the number unemployed owing
to the dispute, including those indirectly affected, sank from
44,500 at the close of the lock-out to 7,500 at the end of
February, 2,000 at the end of April, 1,500 at the end of May,
and 1,000 at the end of June. … Some idea of the indirect
effects of the stoppage on trades related to those engaged in
the struggle may be formed from the fact that the percentage
of unemployed members in trade unions of the ship-building
group rose from 4.4 per cent. in July, to 14.1 per cent. in
December."
Great Britain, Board of Trade (Labour Department),
Report on the Strikes and Lock-outs of 1897.
INDUSTRIAL DISTURBANCES, Wide-spread: A. D. 1897.
Great coal miners' strike in the United States.
A general strike of the coal miners in the various districts
of the United States began in July, 1897. The territory
covered five states and involved about 157,000 men. The
strikers asked for an advance in wages on the ground that it
was their right to share in the increase of business
prosperity and advanced prices. A grievance for which redress
was asked was that of being obliged to buy at the company
stores, paying in company's orders, to be deducted from their
wages. The principal grievance was the 54-cent rate, paid by
Mr. W. P. De Armitt of the New York and Cleveland Gas Coal
Company. The men employed by Mr. De Armitt had signed a
contract to accept a rate 10 cents below that of other
operators, in return for which he had abolished company
stores, gave steady employment, and paid promptly in cash. His
men were satisfied with the arrangement, although the
prevailing price for mining coal was 64 cents a ton. Most of
them, however, were finally forced by the organization to join
the strikers. The strike lasted until September 12, when
matters were arranged in a convention at Columbus, Ohio, when
a uniform rate of 65 cents was adopted.
A tragic feature of the strike occurred at Lattimer,
Pennsylvania, where a mob of marching miners, resisting the
sheriff and handling him roughly, were fired upon by armed
deputies. Eighteen were killed and about forty wounded.
INDUSTRIAL DISTURBANCES, Wide-spread: A. D. 1898.
New England cotton mill strike.
In January a general strike, affecting 125,000 operatives,
resulted from a reduction in wages in 150 cotton mills of New
England. By April most of the strikers returned to work at the
manufacturers' terms.
INDUSTRIAL DISTURBANCES, Wide-spread: A. D. 1898.
Coal miners' strike in Illinois.
This strike, beginning in May, originated in the refusal of
the mine operators to grant the rate of 40 cents a ton, agreed
upon after the strike of 1897. The operators refused to
compromise and the miners were upheld by the United Mine
Workers. Riots arose in the towns of Pana and Virden upon the
attempt of the mine owners to import negro workers from the
south. Governor Tanner, in sending troops to restore order,
enjoined upon them to protect citizens, but on no account to
assist mine owners to operate their mines with imported labor,
The governor's attitude provoked much criticism. A serious
outbreak occurred on October 12, at Virden, when 14 persons
were killed and 25 wounded. The strike at Virden was settled
in November, the mine owners agreeing to the demands of the
miners. The trouble at Pana lasted until April, when a
settlement was arrived at.
INDUSTRIAL DISTURBANCES, Wide-spread: A. D. 1900.
Anthracite coal miners' strike in Pennsylvania.
A great strike of the anthracite mine workers of Pennsylvania,
which began September 17, practically ended October 17, when
the Philadelphia and Reading Coal and Iron Company and the
Lehigh Valley Coal Company agreed to abolish the sliding scale
in their respective regions and to grant an advance in wages
of 10 per cent. net, the advance to remain in operation until
April 1, 1901, and thereafter till further notice. Mr. John
Mitchell, president of the Mine Workers' National Union, in a
speech soon after the end of the strike, said that of the
142,000 men concerned "at first only 8,000 men were in the
union or organized. Nevertheless, the day the strike began,
112,000 men laid down their tools; and when the strike ended,
after 39 days of non-employment, all but 2,000 of them had
joined the ranks of the union."
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION, in the United States.
See (in this volume)
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1897.
INITIATIVE IN SWITZERLAND, The.
See (in this volume)
SWITZERLAND: A. D. 1894-1898.
INSURANCE, Compulsory, in Germany.
See (in this volume)
GERMANY: A. D. 1897-1900.
INTERCONTINENTAL RAILWAY, The.
See (in this volume)
RAILWAY, INTERCONTINENTAL.
INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION.
See (in this volume)
ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL.
INTERNATIONAL CATALOGUING, of Scientific Literature.
See (in this volume)
SCIENCE, RECENT: SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE.
INTERNATIONAL COMMERCIAL CONGRESS.
An important step in promotion of the development of
international commerce was taken at Philadelphia, in October,
1899, by the assembling of an International Commercial
Congress, under the auspices of the Philadelphia Commercial
Museum and the Franklin Institute, with the co-operation, not
only of the city and the State, but also of the Congress of
the United States. Some forty governments, and a great number
of chambers of commerce and other business organizations were
represented, and much good was expected from the meeting. It
adopted resolutions urging co-operative and assimilated action
by all nations, in the registration of trade marks, in the
preparation of trade statistics and agricultural reports, and
in the establishing of the parcels post. It commended the
Philadelphia Commercial Museum as an example to be imitated;
urged the construction of an interoceanic canal, recommended
free trade in artistic works, and pleaded for the pacific
settlement of international disputes by arbitration.
At the time of the session of the Congress, a National Export
Exposition was being held at Philadelphia, under the same
auspices, with great success.
{269}
INTEROCEANIC CANAL.
See (in this volume)
CANAL, INTEROCEANIC.
INTEROCEANIC RAILWAY, The Tehuantepec.
See (in this volume)
MEXICO: A. D. 1898-1900.
INTER-STATE COMMERCE, American.
Arbitration of industrial disputes.
See (in this volume)
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1898 (JUNE).
INVENTIONS:
Comparison of the Nineteenth Century with preceding ages.
See (in this volume)
NINETEENTH CENTURY: COMPARISON.
IRADE.
See (in this volume)
TURKEY: A. D. 1895.
----------IRELAND: Start--------
IRELAND: A. D. 1890-1900.
Hopeful work in the organization and systematization
of Irish agriculture.
"Can nothing be made of an essentially food-producing country
situated at the very door of the greatest market for
food-stuffs that the world has ever seen? Government has at
last moved in this matter, but, as usual, not before private
initiation had shamed them into action. Mr. Horace Plunkett
and his friends went to work ten years ago, pointing out that
Ireland had natural resources equal or superior to those of
countries which were driving her few products out of the
English market, and preached the organisation, the
co-operation, and the scientific methods of agriculture which
in those other countries were inculcated and subsidised by
state agencies. Then the Congested Districts Board, under the
auspices of Mr. Arthur Balfour, began its beneficent work.
Then came in 1895 the Recess Committee, on Mr. Plunkett's
suggestion; and finally, in 1899, the recommendations of that
Committee's invaluable Report were practically embodied in the
creation of a Board of Agriculture and Technical Instruction.
This body has scarcely as yet begun its work, but its main
business will be to do throughout the whole of Ireland what
has been done in the least hopeful districts by the Congested
Districts Board, and over a larger area, but with very
inadequate means, by the Irish Agricultural Organisation
Society, of which Mr. Plunkett has been the moving spirit.
Things are therefore only at their beginning. … The main
purpose of the Irish Agricultural Organisation Society has
been not to create new industries but to organize and
systematise the one already existing—the characteristic Irish
industry of agriculture. It has done the work which in France,
Denmark, Canada, and a dozen other countries that can be
named, is being done by a State department; and the efforts of
its promoters have brought into being such a department for
Ireland also. The Society spent in nine years £15,000 of
subscriptions. This neither can last nor ought to last. It is
the business of the Department, if it does not supersede the
Society, to subsidise it."
Stephen Gwynn,
A Month in Ireland
(Blackwood's Magazine, October, 1900, page 573).
The most effective work done thus far, by the official and
private agencies above mentioned, appears to have been in the
organization of co-operative creameries and dairies.
IRELAND: A. D. 1894.
Cooling of the Liberal party towards Irish Home Rule.
See (in this volume)
ENGLAND: A. D. 1894-1895.
IRELAND: A. D. 1896.
A new Land Act.
"The celebrated Land Act of 1881, supplemented by Acts in the
same direction, placed the land of Ireland, as everyone knows,
under a system of perpetual leases, at State-settled rents,
renewable every fifteen years; and, in 1896, the time was at
hand for revising the rents fixed from 1881 onwards, and for
renewing the leases made during this interval of time. An Act,
accordingly, was passed through Parliament in order fully to
accomplish this end; and, incidentally, it dealt with many
other things connected with the Irish Land System, and with
the legislation inaugurated in 1881. It enlarged the sphere of
State-settled rent, bringing within it certain classes of
tenants which, hitherto, had been excluded from it; it placed
the law for exempting tenants' improvements from rent, to a
considerable extent, on a new basis; and it introduced, for
the first time, what is called the principal of 'compulsory
purchase' into the system of 'Land Purchase,' so named in
Ireland, always a favourite policy of Lord Salisbury's
Governments."
Judge O'Connor Morris,
The Report of the Fry Commission
(Fortnightly Review, November, 1898).
The new bill (59 & 60 Vict. ch. 47) was carried successfully
through Parliament by the Government, with skillful management
on the part of Mr. Gerald Balfour, the Secretary for Ireland,
after many amendments and much debate. It was a compromise
measure, reluctantly accepted and satisfying no interest or
party. The general feeling with which it was passed is
described as follows: "The practical result of the discussion
was to show that the bill did not go so far as Mr. T. W.
Russell, a member of the Government and the representative of
the Ulster farmers, wished; that the section of the
Nationalists headed by Mr. Dillon were anxious to throw cold
water upon it, but afraid to oppose it openly; and that Mr.
Healy and his friends, as well as the Parnellites, were ready
to do their best to ensure its passing. But while the
representatives of the tenants were ready to accept the bill
as an installment of their claims, they at the same time
pronounced it, to be inadequate. … The Dillonites were
unwilling to give the Healyites and the Parnellites the chance
of taunting them with having lost the bill, whilst the
landlords hoped for an improvement of the purchase clauses and
a reform of procedure in the law courts. … The debate on the
third reading, although not forced to a division, was
spirited; the landlords opposing it because it was too much of
a tenant's bill, and Mr. Davitt opposing it because it was too
much of a landlords' bill. Mr. Dillon and his followers voted
for it, but in their speeches did all they could to run it
down, while the Parnellites and Healyites did all in their
power to support it."
Annual Register, 1896,
pages 160-161.
{270}
IRELAND: 1896-1897.
Report of a Royal Commission on the Financial Relations
between Great Britain and Ireland.
"At various times since the passing of the Act of Legislative
Union between Great Britain and Ireland, complaints have been
made that the financial arrangements between the two countries
were not satisfactory, or in accordance with the principles of
that Act, and that the resources of Ireland have had to bear
an undue pressure of taxation. Inquiries into the truth of
these allegations have frequently been called for"; but it was
not until 1894 that provision was made for a thorough
investigation of the subject. In that year a Royal Commission
was appointed, with Mr. Childers, ex-Chancellor of the
Exchequer, at its head, "to inquire into the financial
relations between Great Britain and Ireland, and their
relative taxable capacity, and to report:
(1.) Upon what principles of comparison, and by the
application of what specific standards, the relative capacity
of Great Britain and Ireland to bear taxation may be most
equitably determined.
(2.) What, so far as can be ascertained, is the true
proportion, under the principles and specific standards so
determined, between the taxable capacity of Great Britain and
Ireland.
(3.) The history of the financial relations between Great
Britain and Ireland at and after the Legislative Union, the
charge for Irish purposes on the Imperial Exchequer during
that period, and the amount of Irish taxation remaining
available for contribution to Imperial expenditure; also the
Imperial expenditure to which it is considered equitable that
Ireland should contribute."
The Commission made its "Final Report" in 1896, submitting the
conclusions on which its members were unanimously agreed, and
presenting, further, no less than seven differing reports on
other points upon which agreement could not be reached. The
summary of conclusions in the unanimous joint report was as
follows:
"In carrying out the inquiry we have ascertained that there
are certain questions upon which we are practically unanimous,
and we think it expedient to set them out in this joint
report. Our conclusions on these questions are as follows:
I. That Great Britain and Ireland must, for the purpose of
this inquiry, be considered as separate entities.
II. That the Act of Union imposed upon Ireland a burden which,
as events showed, she was unable to bear.
III. That the increase of taxation laid upon Ireland between
1853 and 1860 was not justified by the then existing
circumstances.
IV. That identity of rates of taxation does not necessarily
involve equality of burden.
V. That whilst the actual tax revenue of Ireland is about
one-eleventh of that of Great Britain the relative taxable
capacity of Ireland is very much smaller, and is not estimated
by any of us as exceeding one-twentieth."
Great Britain,
Parliamentary Publications
(Papers by Command: C.—8262, pages 1-2).
The report was keenly criticised in England, and the fact that
it emanated from a Commission in which the majority were
partisans of Irish Home Rule was used by the Conservatives to
disparage its conclusions. A new investigation of the subject
was called for. The subject came before Parliament in the
session of 1897,—first in the Lords, and later in the Commons.
On the 30th of March, Mr. Blake, a member from Ireland, moved
a resolution in the House of Commons, to the effect that the
report of the Commission had established the existence of an

undue burden of taxation on Ireland and made it the duty of
the Government to propose remedial legislation at an early
day. The debate which this opened was continued during three
nights, at the end of which the motion was negatived by a vote
of 317 to 157.
IRELAND: A. D. 1898 (July).
The Local Government Act.
A bill which had great success, so far as it went, in
satisfying the representatives of Ireland in the Parliament of
the United Kingdom, was brought forward there, by the
Conservative Government, in February, 1898, and carried
through both Houses in July. It was accepted by the Irish as
"no substitute for Home Rule," but as a recognized "step in
that direction." It had been foreshadowed in the Queen's
Speech at the opening of Parliament, and described as a
measure "for the organisation of a system of local government
in Ireland substantially similar to that which, within the
last few Years, has been established in Great Britain." This
important Act established County Councils, Urban District
Councils, Rural District Councils, and Boards of Guardians,
all elected by ballot every three years, on a franchise
broader than the Parliamentary franchise, since it gave the
local suffrage to women. The same Act extended to Ireland the
provisions of the Act for the relief of agricultural land, and
contained some other welcome provisions of financial relief.
61 & 62 Vict. chapter 37.
"To understand the extent of the change which is now
determined on … it is necessary first to describe the system
of Irish Local Government which is about to pass away forever.
Broadly speaking, that system consisted of three parts, viz.:
the Grand Jury, the Poor Law Boards, and various forms of
Municipal Government in towns and cities. … The Grand Jury was
about the most anomalous and indefensible institution which
can be conceived. It consisted, usually, of a couple of dozen
persons chosen from a larger number selected by the High
Sheriff for the county or the city, as the case might be, the
High Sheriff himself being the nominee of the Lord Lieutenant,
who acted on the recommendation of the Superior Court Judges,
who, in their turn, always recommended some leading landlord
and magistrate. … The Grand Jury in every Irish county, down
even to the present year, has always consisted almost entirely
of members of the landlord class, and mainly of Protestants
also. To bodies thus constituted was entrusted the control of
all public roads and other public works of the county, the
contracts therefor, the management of the prisons, the care of
the public buildings, the power to contribute to infirmaries,
lunatic asylums and fever hospitals, the appointment of all
the paid officials of the county, and the right to levy a tax
called the county cess, which, of late years, has produced
considerably more than a million pounds sterling annually.
Associated with the Grand Juries were smaller bodies, the
members of which met at 'Presentment Sessions' once or twice a
year to initiate county works. Those bodies also were
non-elective, and represented mainly the landlords and
magistrates of the respective counties. In the old days, these
Grand Juries became—not unnaturally—not merely nests of jobbery
and corruption, but an agency of social and political
oppression. …
{271}
For many years past, indeed, the Grand Juries have not been
open to all those charges. They have not, as a rule, been the
corrupt jobbers they were forty or fifty years ago. Their
administration of the business entrusted to them has been
fairly honest and efficient. But in their constitution they
have, on the whole, continued to be what they were. …
"The Boards of Poor Law Guardians have in the course of time
become more or less popular bodies, and, besides their
original function of dispensing relief out of the rates to the
destitute poor, have been invested with the management of so
many other matters in recent years that their title is now
really a misnomer. They are, for instance, the sanitary
authorities in all rural and in some urban districts; they
have to do with the registration of births, deaths, and
marriages, and—not to go through the whole list of their
powers and duties—they have had the administration of the
Laborers' Acts, under which a good deal has been done, since
the year 1883, to improve the homes of agricultural laborers.
"It remains to notice the system of Government in the towns
and cities. In this case there has been some degree of reality
in the phrase, 'local self-government'—at least, for the last
forty or fifty years. Down to 1840 there was no really
representative system of government in any Irish town or city.
… Since the year mentioned the corporations have been more or
less representative, and since 1854 the smaller towns in
Ireland have been allowed the right to possess municipal
institutions of a less important, but still representative,
character. In respect, however, of both the corporations of
the cities and of the town boards of the smaller civic
communities, the franchise for municipal purposes has been
ridiculously restricted. In Dublin, the population exceeds
300,000; the Parliamentary electorate is upwards of 40,000;
but the municipal electorate amounts to only about 8,000 or
9,000; and the same story is true of all the other
municipalities, except a few which, like Belfast, have by
special acts of Parliament obtained extensions of the suffrage
peculiar to themselves.
"Here, then, was a state of thing's which, assuredly, required
mending, and, as I have said, innumerable efforts to mend it
had been made up to last year with no result. Last summer,
however, the reform now virtually accomplished was announced
to the House of Commons one afternoon by Mr. Arthur Balfour,
without anyone having asked for it and without any warning
whatever. The chief features of the measure may be briefly
described. In the first place, the ground is cleared by
absolutely sweeping away the Grand Juries for fiscal purposes.
Those bodies are still retained for their original
purpose—that, namely, of dealing with indictments. … With them
go the Boards of Guardians as they are at present constituted.
Bodies will still continue to exist under that name, but they
will be no longer constituted as they are now. … In the place
of the Grand Juries and the Boards of Guardians there has been
set up a rather complicated system of County Councils and
District Councils, these latter being sub-divided into two
classes—Urban District Councils and Rural District Councils;
and at this point one provision applicable to all those
bodies, and also to every Corporation and Town Board in the
country, may be conveniently mentioned. It is that which
enacts that the electorate in each case shall be the
Parliamentary electorate, in addition to peers and to such
women as would, if they were men, be qualified for the
Parliamentary franchise. Here is manifestly a great reform in
itself. … The change is a vast one, in view of the narrow
foundation on which even the most popular Irish local
institutions have hitherto rested. It means the transfer of
power from a class to the people. It means the ousting of what
used to be the English garrison in Ireland from what it had
come to regard as its inalienable heritage. It marks the entry
of the Irish Nation, after ages of weary waiting, into at
least a considerable portion of its birthright. To the County
Councils, which will thus repose on a thoroughly popular
basis, and one of which will be established in every county,
will be entrusted all the fiscal business of the Grand Juries,
with one exception. The excepted business is that of assessing
compensation for malicious injuries."
J. J. Clancy,
The Latest Reform in Ireland
(North American Review, September, 1898).
IRELAND: A. D. 1900 (April).
Visit of Queen Victoria.
For the first time in nearly forty years, Queen Victoria paid
a visit to Ireland in April, and held court in Dublin for
three weeks, being cordially received and treated throughout
with respect by well-mannered crowds. Apparently the visit
gave satisfaction to most of the Irish people.
IRELAND: A. D. 1900-1901.
Parliamentary elections.
Triumph of the United Irish League.
Its absorption of the Nationalist party.
Its programme.
The elections to a new Parliament (see, in this volume,
ENGLAND: A. D. 1900, SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER), held in October,
resulted in a sweeping victory for the United Irish League, a
new organization formed by Mr. William O'Brien, which,
according to the "London Times," "has practically absorbed the
whole of the Irish Nationalist party" and "is the successor in
title of the old Land League." "Mr. William O'Brien," says the
"Times," "returned his own followers to Parliament from
practically every Nationalist constituency in Ireland. … For
the moment at least all the other successors of Mr. Parnell
are vanquished or in captivity, and Mr. O'Brien finds himself
at the head of a party which for the first time in ten years
has the right to call itself 'united.'"
On the opening of the Parliament, in the following February,
the new League was soon brought to its attention by Mr.
O'Brien, who moved, on the 22d, to amend the Address to the
King, which was then under discussion, by adding to it the
following: "Humbly to represent to your Majesty that this
House has observed that a combination of the agricultural
classes in Ireland has been formed, under the name of the
United Irish League, with the object of accomplishing reforms
which alone, in the opinion of nine-tenths of the
constitutional representatives of Ireland, can arrest the
continued depopulation of that country and the decay of its
only great national industry.
{272}
These reforms being, first, the creation of an occupying
proprietary in substitution for the present unsettled and
vexatious system of dual ownership of land; and, secondly, the
utilization of extensive tracts, at present lying practically
waste in the congested districts, for the purpose of supplying
holdings of sufficient extent to a hard-working and deserving
population, who for want of land are compelled to live in a
condition of chronic privation and even famine on the borders
of those fertile depopulated areas; that the movement which
has been carried on for the past three years for the promotion
of these objects has been marked by the disappearance of those
crimes of violence and secret conspiracies which were used to
the discredit of all former agrarian combinations in Ireland,
and the league, basing itself on the principle that its
struggle is in the nature of a great economic industrial
dispute between the tillers of the soil on the one side and
the rent-owners, supported by a vast capital and territorial
influence, on the other, has relied for success upon those
combinations for mutual protection and appeals to public
opinion which the trade union laws have expressly authorized
in the cause of disputes between capital and labour of a
non-agricultural character; that, nevertheless, this House has
observed that the forces of the Crown have been
unconstitutionally employed, and public justice has been
polluted in the interest of one of the parties to the dispute;
that the right of public meeting has been capriciously
suppressed; that prosecutions for conspiracy and Whiteboyism
have been instituted in reference to open and advised appeals
to public opinion and measures of mutual protection, which are
indisputably within the right of trade unions in ordinary
industrial struggles; that the power of contempt of Court has
been unconstitutionally and oppressively abused for the
purpose of inflicting prolonged sentences of imprisonment
without trial; that the right of trial by jury has been
outraged by the systematic exclusion from the jury-box of all
jurors sharing the politics or creed of the accused, and the
empanelling of juries composed exclusively of sympathizers
with the territorial class, that the liberty of the Press in
Ireland has been assailed, and influential organs of opinion
prosecuted in the endeavour to silence public comment on this
iniquitous system; that grievous and vindictive fines have
been exacted from districts obnoxious to the landlord interest
by means of charges for extra police quartered upon peaceful
populations, and that the people of Ireland have been
subjected to divers others the like cruel oppressions and
provocations; and humbly to represent to your Majesty that, it
being of the highest constitutional import to encourage the
Irish people to seek the redress of their grievances by the
fullest freedom of speech and of combination which is
warranted by the example of the trade unions of Great Britain,
this House is of opinion that the attacks at present directed
by the Executive against the rights of free speech and of
combination in Ireland should cease, and that the legislation
protecting the trade unions in the exercise of their rights of
combination against capital and non-union labour should be
extended to all agricultural combinations of a similar
character in that country."
In his speech supporting the amendment Mr. O'Brien charged
that, "there being no real crime in Ireland, the Executive
there had made crime of perfectly legitimate actions, treating
the people as if the object was to goad them into conspiracy
and violence. The record of the league was virtually a
crimeless one, it had carried on its work now for three years
without any of those blood-curdling incidents which coercion
Ministers used to smack their lips over in that House. … The
league, which had been tested by time and had proved its power
at the general election, had started and carried on in Ireland
an irresistible agitation for the suppression, for the
abolition of landlordism, and had elicited in the King's first
Speech a promise, such as it was, of another land Bill,
although two years ago that House was assured that there was
no longer an Irish land question."
An extensive combination, he said, was going on in Ireland
against the taking of evicted farms, and "what form of trade
unionism could be more legitimate?" But charges of
intimidation and conspiracy; he claimed, were trumped up, and
juries were packed, for the suppression of this movement,
though it went no farther than trades unions in England could
go with no interference. "The Irish people exercised the right
of combination in the United Irish League, and they would
continue to exercise it whether the Government liked it or
not, in order to obtain the land on conditions that would give
its cultivators a living wage. In the ranks of the
organization were 500,000 farmers and labourers, representing
with their families three-fourths of the population of
Ireland. Their object was to parcel out the vast grazing lands
lying derelict among the cottagers who were starving on their
verge. A department of the Government was actually engaged in
carrying out the programme of the league, but at such a
snail's pace that it would take centuries to make any
impression upon the mass of misery which existed in the
country."
After several hours of debate the amendment to
the Address was rejected by 203 votes against 109.
----------IRELAND: End--------
IRON, Combinations in the production of.
See (in this volume)
TRUSTS: UNITED STATES.
IRON GATES OF THE DANUBE, Opening of the.
See (in this volume)
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: A. D. 1896.
ISLE DU DIABLE.
See (in this volume)
FRANCE: A. D. 1897-1899.
ISRAEL, The People of:
Discovery of the sole mention of them in Egyptian inscriptions.
See (in this volume)
ARCHÆOLOGICAL RESEARCH: EGYPT: RESULTS.
ISTHMIAN CANAL, The.
See (in this volume)
CANAL, INTEROCEANIC.
ISTHMIAN RAILWAY, The Tehuantepec.
See (in this volume)
MEXICO: A. D. 1898-1900.
ITAGAKI, Count: Leader of the Japanese Liberal party.
See (in this volume)
JAPAN: A. D. 1890-1898.
{273}
----------ITALY: Start--------
ITALY: Recent archæological explorations.
See (in this volume)
ARCHÆOLOGICAL RESEARCH: ITALY.
ITALY: A. D. 1895-1896.
Accusations against the Crispi Ministry.
Fresh offense to the Vatican.
Disastrous war with Abyssinia.
Fall of Crispi.
In elections to the Italian Chamber of Deputies, which took
place in May, 1895, the government, under Signor Crispi, was
accused of audacious practices, striking the names of opposed
electors from the voting lists, to the number, it is said, of
several hundreds of thousands, and contriving otherwise to
paralyze the opposition to itself. The result of the elections
was the return of 336 government candidates, against 98 of
other parties. An attempt to obtain an official return of all
the deputies who were receiving pay from the State, directly
or indirectly, was skilfully baffled by Signor Crispi, and
remained a matter of rumor and guess. In September, the
government gave fresh offense to the Vatican by an imposing
celebration of the 25th anniversary of the entry of the
Italian troops into Rome, with a display of the flag of
free-masonry. Hostility of France and Russia to Italy was made
acute "by the renewal, on the return of Lord Salisbury to
office in 1895, of an agreement between England, Austria and
Italy for common action in the Eastern question, originally
made in 1887. In virtue of this agreement Italy sent her fleet
to the Aegean to support Great Britain at the opening of the
Armenian question [see, in this volume, TURKEY: A. D. 1895,
and after], and the consequence was that France and Russia put
pressure on Abyssinia to renew hostilities against Italy. This
new campaign Crispi was ill-prepared to meet, as he had
detailed a corps d'armée for an expedition to Asia Minor in
conjunction with the naval preparations, and the strength of
the forces under arms did not enable the minister of war to
detach another corps to Erythrea. To complete the difficulties
of the position, a coolness arose between the Emperor of
Germany and the government of Crispi, the latter having
notified the German government that he should at the proper
time denounce the Treaty of the Triple Alliance with the
object of providing better security for Italian interests in
Africa. The Emperor in reply advised the King of Italy that
Crispi was becoming importunate and must be got rid of. This
defection probably determined the fall of Crispi. It gave such
strength to the opposition at home, that the intrigues of the
Court and military circles succeeded in paralyzing all his
military plans, and especially in preventing him from
superseding Baratieri, now recognized as incompetent for the
enlarged operations which were in view. The King refused to
consent to the suppression until it became imperative through
the increase of the force to a point at which a superior
officer was necessitated by the regulations, when Baldissera
was appointed to the superior command. But before Baldissera
could enter on his command, Baratieri, against the distinct
orders of the government, attacked with a force of 14,000 men
the impregnable positions near Adowah which Menelek held with
80,000. He was met by the most crushing defeat that Italy has
had to undergo in modern times. Out of the total force no less
than 6,000 perished.
"The history of this affair still remains more or less a
secret, the court-martial which followed being rather
calculated to bury than expose the facts of the case, but the
immediate effect was to induce the ministry to resign without
waiting for the assembling of parliament. The magnitude of the
disaster made it evident that, considering the Italian
temperament and its tendency to panic, the responsibility for
it would be visited on the ministry, though it was only
responsible in so far as it had submitted to the Royal
decision deferring the recall of Baratieri. The King,
unwilling to accept the programme of Rudini, gave the
formation of the new ministry to General Ricotti, a Senator,
Rudini taking the portfolio of home affairs (March, 1896). …
The scheme of army reorganization proposed by Ricotti, which
aimed at improving the efficiency of the force by devoting
money rather to the instruction of the rank and file than to
the maintenance of superfluous officers, was opposed, … the
law was defeated in the chamber, and Ricotti gave place to
Rudini as President of the Council. The rejection of Ricotti's
plan was a triumph for the Franco-Russian party, which had
re-assumed the direction of foreign affairs. Africa, under
this policy, being excluded from the Italian sphere of action,
peace was made with Menelek [October 26, 1896] on terms which
practically implied withdrawal from Erythrea to the port of
Massowah. This measure satisfied the exigencies of the old
Right, while the Radicals were conciliated by the exclusion
and proscription of Crispi and by the understanding with
France, as well as by the reversal of the repressive policy
towards the extreme members of their party. Thus the year 1897
saw Italy reduced to inertia abroad and apathy within."
W. J. Stillman,
The Union of Italy,
chapter 15
(Cambridge: University Press).
The peace made with King Menelek in 1896 ended the Italian
claim to a protectorate over Abyssinia, which seems never to
have had any basis of right. It started from a treaty
negotiated in 1889, known as the Treaty of Uchali, which
purported to be no more than an ordinary settlement of
friendly relations, commercial and political. But the
convention contained a clause which is said to have read in
the Amharic (the court and official language of Abyssinia),
"the King of Abyssinia may make use of the government of the
King of Italy in all matters whereon he may have to treat with
other governments." In the Italian version of the treaty, the
innocent permissive phrase, "may make use," became, it is
said, an obligatory "agrees to make use," &c., and was so
communicated to foreign governments, furnishing grounds for a
claim of "protection" which the Abyssinians rejected
indignantly. Hence the wars which proved disastrous to Italy.
ITALY: A. D. 1897.
Dissolution of the Chamber.
Election of Deputies.
Reconstruction of the Ministry.
Early in the year a royal decree dissolved the Chamber of
Deputies, and elections held in March gave the Rudini Ministry
a large majority. The Catholic party refrained almost entirely
from voting. But divisions arose in the course of the year
which brought about a reconstruction of the Cabinet in
December, Signor Rudini still being at the head. An important
event of the year was the resolution of the Italian government
to evacuate Kassala, on the Abyssinian frontier, directly
eastward from Khartum. The Italians had taken it from the
Mahdists in 1894. It now became part of the Anglo-Egyptian
territory.
{274}
ITALY: A. D. 1898.
Arbitration Treaty with Argentine Republic.
See (in this volume)
ARGENTINE REPUBLIC: A. D. 1898.
ITALY: A. D. 1898 (March-June).
Report on charges against Signor Crispi.
His resignation from Parliament and re-election.
Change of Ministry.
In March, a special commission, appointed the previous
December, to investigate certain serious charges against the
ex-Premier, Signor Crispi, reported his culpability, but that
nothing in his conduct could be brought for trial before the
High Court. The charges were connected with a scandalous
wrecking of several banks, at Rome, Naples, and elsewhere,
which had occurred during Signor Crispi's administration, and
which was found to be due to political extortions practiced on
those institutions by members and agents of the government.
Personally, it did not appear that the ex-Premier had profited
by what was done; but his wife seemed to have been a large
recipient of gain, and moneys wrung from the banks had been
used for party political purposes and for the government
secret service fund. On the report made by the commission
Signor Crispi resigned his seat in Parliament, and was
promptly re-elected from Palermo by an overwhelming majority.
In May, the Ministry of the Marquis di Rudini, much weakened
by the troubled state of the country, was reconstructed, but
only to hold its ground for another month. On the 17th of
June, upon a threatened vote of want of confidence, it
resigned, and, on the 28th, a new Liberal Ministry took
office, with General Pelloux at its head.
ITALY: A. D. 1898 (April-May).
Bread riots in the south and
revolutionary outbreaks in the north.
"May 1898 will be remembered for a long time in Italy, and one
may wish that the eventful month may mark the turning-point in
political life of the new kingdom. The revolt was general, the
explosion broke out almost suddenly, but long was the period
of preparation. 'Malcontento' is quite a household word in
Italy—and the Italians had more than one reason to be
dissatisfied with their national government. The rise in the
price of bread, as a consequence of the Hispano-American war,
was the immediate, but by no means the only, cause of the
uprising which darkened the skies of sunny Italy for several
days. The enormous taxation imposed upon a people yet young in
its national life, in order to carry out a policy far too big for
the financial means of the country; the failure in the attempt
to establish a strong colony in the Red Sea; the economic war
with France; the scanty help Italy received from her allies in
time of need; the political corruption, unchecked when not
encouraged by those who stood at the helm of the State; the
impotence of the Chambers of Deputies to deal with the
evil-doers as the claims of justice and the voice of the
people required, all these evils have prepared a propitious
ground for the agitators both of the radical and reactionary
parties.
"The Bread Riots began towards the end of April, and in a few
days they assumed a very alarming aspect, especially in the
small towns of the Neapolitan provinces, inhabited by people
ordinarily pacific and law-abiding. The destruction of
property was wanton and wide-spread, women careless of their
lives leading the men to the assault. In many cases the riots
soon came to an end; in others the immediate abolition of the
'octroi' did not produce the desired effect. … There was no
organization in the Neapolitan provinces; the riots were
absolutely independent of one another, but they were
originated by the same cause—misery; they aimed at the same
object—a loud protest by means of devastation; they all ended
in the same way—viz., after two or three days the soldiers
restored order, the dead were buried, and the ringleaders
taken to prison to be dealt with by the military court. In the
north, at Milan, the uprising was of quite a different
character. In the south of Italy it was truly a question of
bread and bread alone. In Central Italy it was a question of
work, in Lombardy a truly revolutionary movement. The
Neapolitan mob shouted for bread and bread alone, some asking
for cheaper bread, some others for 'free bread.' In Tuscany
the cry was, 'Pane o Lavoro!' (bread or work). In Lombardy
quite another trumpet was sounded: 'Down with the Government!
Down with the Dynasty!'
"The Milanese, of all the people of Italy, have plenty of work
and bread, and it is admitted by all that bread had nothing to
do with the revolt of Milan. I have studied this movement from
its inception, and my conclusion is that the revolt broke out
long before it was expected, thus making the discomfiture more
certain. The great majority of the population of Milan was,
and is, conservative and loyal to the King, although not
pleased with the doings of the Government. Only a minority,
but a very noisy and active minority, is against monarchical
institutions. For some time past the revolutionary party of
Milan have made no mystery of their political aspirations
towards the establishment of a Milanese republic, to be called
'Republica Ambrogiana.' … Milan is also the headquarters of
Socialism and Anarchism. Socialists and Republicans once upon
a time were implacable foes. Many a battle they fought one
against the other; but since 1886 the two have come to love
each other more, or to hate each other less, whichever it may
be; and towards the end of 1895 they entered into partnership
against their common enemy—Crispi! Then the Anarchists came
in. Decent Republicans and timid Socialists were rather averse
to ally themselves with anarchy; the very name was loathsome
to them. However, this natural mistrust soon disappeared, and
the Anarchists were welcomed into the dual alliance. Still
another element was to enter—the clerical party. … The
clericals have not a special cry of their own. They satisfied
themselves by rubbing their hands and saying: 'Down it goes at
last.' Little they knew that not the dynasty, not united Italy
was then going down, but society itself. … A friend of mine,
who was in the midst of the revolt, assures me that its
importance has been very much exaggerated in the first reports
sent abroad; and from the official documents, since published,
it appears that about 90 barricades were erected, and some 20
houses ransacked to provide the necessary material to build
them. The number of the killed amounted to 72, and that of the
seriously wounded to 63. On Monday evening [May 9] order was
restored in Milan. … On Wednesday morning shops and factories
were reopened, but it will take years to undo the mischief
done on May 7, 8, and 9, 1898. All are sadder now; one may
hope that they will be wiser also. The agitators, the deluded,
the masses, the governing classes, the Government, all have
had their lesson."
G. D. Vecchia,
The Revolt in Italy
(Contemporary Review, July, 1898).
{275}
ITALY: A. D. 1899 (May-July).
Representation in the Peace Conference at The Hague.
See (in this volume)
PEACE CONFERENCE.
ITALY: A. D. 1899-1900.
Parliamentary disorder, leading to arbitrary government.
Assassination of King Humbert.
Much feeling was excited in Italy by the agreement between
Great Britain and France which practically awarded most of the
Sahara Hinterland of Tripoli (a possession long hoped for and
expected by the Italians), as well as that of Tunis, Algiers,
and Morocco, to France (see, in this volume, NIGERIA). The
government was accused of want of vigor in opposing this, and
was held responsible, at the same time, for the humiliating
failure of an attempt to secure a share of spoils in China, by
lease of Sammun Bay. The resignation of the Ministry was
consequent, early in May; but the King retained General
Pelloux at the head of the government, and new associates in
his cabinet were found. The Chamber of Deputies became
unmanageable; obstruction, very much in the Austrian manner,
was carried to such an extent that Parliament was prorogued.
The King then, by royal decree, conferred extraordinary powers
on the Ministry, suspending, at the same time, rights of meeting
and association, to suppress political agitation, and taking,
in fact, a serious backward step, toward government outside of
constitutional law. Liberals of all shades, and, apparently, many
constitutional Conservatives, were alarmed and outraged by
this threatening measure, and, when Parliament was reconvened,
the proceedings of obstruction were renewed with more persistency
than before. The government then attempted an arbitrary
adoption of rules to prevent obstruction; whereupon (April 3,
1900) the entire Opposition left the House in a body. The
situation at length became such that the King adjourned the
Parliament sine die, on the 16th of May, and a new Chamber of
Deputies was elected on the 3d of the month following. The
Opposition was considerably strengthened in the election, and
the Ministry of General Pelloux, finding itself more helpless
in Parliament than ever, resigned on the 18th of June. A new
Cabinet under Signor Saracco was formed.
On the 29th of July, 1900, King Humbert was assassinated by an
Italian anarchist, named Angelo Bresci, who went to Italy for
the purpose, from Paterson, New Jersey, in the United States,
where he had latterly been living. The King was at Monza, and
had been distributing prizes at a gymnasium. At the close of
the ceremony, as he entered his carriage, the assassin fired
three shots at him, inflicting wounds from which the King died
within an hour. The murderer was seized on the spot, tried and
convicted of the crime. He received the severest penalty that
Italian law could inflict, which was imprisonment for life.
The son who succeeds King Humbert, Victor Emmanuel III., was
in his thirty-first year when thus tragically raised to the
throne. He is weak in body, but is reputed to have an
excellent mind. He was wedded in 1896 to Princess Helene of
Montenegro.
ITALY: A. D. 1900.
Military and naval expenditure.
See (in this volume)
WAR BUDGETS.
ITALY: A. D. 1900.
Naval strength.
See (in this volume)
NAVIES OF THE SEA POWERS.
ITALY: A. D. 1900 (January).
Adhesion to the arrangement of an "open door" commercial
policy in China.
See (in this volume)
CHINA: A. D. 1899-1900 (SEPTEMBER-FEBRUARY).
ITALY: A. D. 1900 (January).
Exposure of the Mafia.
Circumstances came to light in the course of the year 1899
which compelled the government to enter upon an investigation
of the doings of the Sicilian secret society known as the
Mafia. This resulted in the arrest of a number of persons,
including a Sicilian member of the Chamber of Deputies, named
Palizzolo, charged with complicity in the murder, seven years
before, of the Marquis Notarbartolo, manager of the Bank of
Sicily at Palermo. The accused were brought to Milan for
trial, which took place in January, 1900, and the disclosures
then Made showed that Sicily had long been terrorized and
tyrannized, in all departments of affairs, by a few men who
controlled this murderous secret organization, Palizzolo
being, apparently, the head of the fiendish crew. One of the
ministers in the Italian government, General Mirri, Secretary
of War, was found to have had, at least, some scandalous
understandings with the Mafia, and he was forced to resign.
ITALY: A. D. 1900 (January-March).
The outbreak of the "Boxers" in northern China.
See (in this volume)
CHINA: A. D. 1900 (JANUARY-MARCH).
ITALY: A. D. 1900 (June-December).
Co-operation with the Powers in China.
See (in this volume)
CHINA.
ITALY: A. D. 1900 (July-September).
An Italian view of the state of the country.
"Appearances, it is well known, are often deceptive, and the
present condition of Italy is a case in point. Discontent is
not a new thing for the Italian mind to be agitated by, but
there is an enormous difference between being discontented
with the Government of the day and being dissatisfied with the
national institutions. Italians have a quick perception and
are extremely impulsive; they often act suddenly and on the
impression of the moment, but they are also apt to fall into a
state of lethargy, during which the will of the nation is very
weak, both as a stimulus to good government and as repressive
of that which is bad. There are, however, times in which this
will asserts itself. Italy is just passing through one of
these lucid intervals.
"The assassination of King Humbert seems to have awakened the
whole nation from a long sleep. Those who thought there was no
affection left for monarchical institutions in Italy must have
experienced a very depressing disappointment. For forty-eight
hours there was no king at all in Italy. King Humbert was dead
and his successor was somewhere on the high seas, but nobody knew
exactly where, yet not a single disorderly movement was
noticed anywhere. Clericals, Socialists, Republicans, the
three declared enemies of the monarchy, entirely disappeared
from the scene during the crisis.
{276}
If anyone of these parties, which during the last period of
national lethargy had grown more audacious and bolder, had
only attempted to assert itself, the Italian public 'en masse'
would have revolted against it, and performed one of those
acts of summary justice of which the history of Italy
furnishes abundant examples. I think this absence of disorder
of any kind is the most convincing proof that can be adduced
in favour of the present state of things in Italy. Surely, if
the people had been nursing in their hearts a general revolt,
that was the moment for action.
"Of course a few anarchists here and there have rejoiced over
the crime of their comrade; however, I venture to assert that
it is not quite correct to call Italy the hotbed of anarchy.
It is true that many of the most fierce anarchists are Italian
by birth; but anarchism did not originate in Italy, it was
imported there. France and Russia had—under another
name—anarchists long before the name of any Italian was ever
connected with anarchism. … Political education is still in
Italy of very poor quality—truthfully speaking, there is none.
Even the anarchists go elsewhere to perfect their education.
The assassins of Carnot, of the Empress Elizabeth, and of
Canovas, had their political education perfected in Paris or
in London. Italy does not export political murderers, as was
very unkindly said on the occasion of the assassination of the
Empress of Austria. Italy at the worst exports only the rough
material for the making of anarchical murderers. Even the
assassin of King Humbert belongs to this category. He left
Italy with no homicidal mania in him. He was not then a wild
beast with a human face, to make use of an expression uttered
by Signor Saracco, the Premier of Italy. The anarchist clubs
of Paris, London, and New York were his university colleges."
G. D. Vecchia,
The Situation in Italy
(Nineteenth Century Review, September, 1900).
ITALY: A. D. 1901.
Fall of the Saracco Ministry.
Formation of a Liberal Cabinet under Signor Zanardelli.
Census of the kingdom.
The Saracco Ministry, which took direction of the government
in June, 1900, was defeated on the 6th of February, 1901, and
compelled to resign. An extraordinarily heavy vote (318 to
102) was cast against it in condemnation of its conduct in
matters relating to a "Chamber of Labor" at Genoa. First, it
had ordered the dissolution of that body, as being subversive
in influence, and then, when a "strike" occurred in Genoa, as
the consequence, it receded from its action and reconstituted
the Chamber. By the first proceeding it had disgusted the
Conservatives; by the second the Radicals, and by its
indecision the Moderates. They combined to overthrow it. With
some difficulty a new Cabinet was formed containing Liberals
of various shades, with Signor Zanardelli, a veteran
republican of the Garibaldi generation, at its head. A writer
who has frequently discussed foreign politics with a good deal
of knowledge in the columns of the "New York Tribune," over
the signature "Ex-Attache," believes that Zanardelli is
committed "to anti-clerical legislation of the most drastic
and far reaching character," and "may be depended upon to
proceed against the Vatican with a vigor unprecedented in the
annals of united Italy. And there will be," he thinks, "no
attempt on the part of Victor Emmanuel to hold him in leash.
Existing laws will be enforced to the utmost against the
Papacy, while new measures may be looked for to restrict
further the activity of the Church as a factor in political
life, to extend the control of the government over all
ecclesiastical enterprises and undertakings and to emphasize
the fact that all Italians, no matter whether they form part
of the Papal Court or not, are Italian citizens, as well as
subjects of the Italian crown, and required to obey the laws
and to fulfil their obligations as such."
A Press despatch from Rome, in February, announced that "the
result of the first Italian census in 20 years has proved a
surprise. It shows that the population is 35,000,000, while it
was not expected that it would exceed 31,000,000. The ratio of
increase is greater than in any other European country. This
is ascribed to improved sanitation. The birthrate continues
high. It is estimated that 5,000,000 Italians have gone to the
United States and South America."
----------ITALY: End--------
ITO, Marquis:
Administration and political experiments.
See (in this volume)
JAPAN: A. D. 1890-1898; 1898-1899;
and 1900 (AUGUST-OCTOBER).
J.
JACKSON-HARMSWORTH EXPEDITION, Return of the.
See (in this volume)
POLAR EXPEDITION, 1897.
JAMAICA: A. D. 1898.
Industrial condition.
See (in this volume)
WEST INDIES, THE BRITISH: A. D. 1897.
JAMAICA: A. D. 1899.
Financial crisis and conflict between
the Governor and the Legislative Assembly.
A crisis in the financial circumstances of the Colony,
consequent on expenditures exceeding revenue for several
years, was reached in 1899, and led to a serious conflict of
views between the Governor and the Legislative Assembly. The
latter is constituted of members partly elected and partly
appointed by the Governor. The elected members of the Assembly
had been in the majority, hitherto, but the Governor possessed
authority to add to the nominated membership, and he exercised
that authority, as a means of obtaining action on a tariff
bill which he held to be a necessary measure. He did so under
instructions from the British Colonial Secretary. Before this
occurred, an agent of the Colonial Office, Sir David Barbour,
had been sent to Jamaica to report on the financial situation.
His report, submitted in June, besides recommending financial
remedies, contained some references to the political
constitution of the colony—among them these:
{277}
"The peculiar constitution of the Government had … an
influence in bringing about, or aggravating the present
financial difficulties: When it was apparent that either more
revenue must be raised or expenditure must be reduced, the
Government was in favour of increasing taxation, while the
elected members of the Legislative Council pressed for
reductions of expenditure. From the nature of the
Constitution, the Government was practically unable to carry
proposals for increased taxation in opposition to the votes of
nine elected members, while the elected members could not in
any satisfactory manner enforce reduction of expenditure. The
present state of things shows that both increase of taxation
and reduction of expenditure were necessary, but though there
has been much friction in recent years, and great loss of time
in the Legislative Council, neither increase of taxation nor
reduction of expenditure was effected in any degree at all
adequate to avert the difficulties which were approaching. …
The Home Government are, in the last resort, responsible for
the financial condition of Jamaica, while, under ordinary
circumstances, the Colonial Office exercises at present no
real direct and immediate control over the finances. … It may
be taken for granted that under any circumstances Her
Majesty's Government would be unwilling to see the Colony sink
into a condition of insolvency without an effort for its
relief, and as the ultimate responsibility must, therefore,
rest on Her Majesty's Government it would seem better to
exercise the power of control, while it is still possible to
apply a remedy, rather than to wait until the mischief can
only be redressed at the cost of the British taxpayer. On the
other hand, as no real responsibility can be enforced on the
Elected Members, it seems necessary to give the Governor some
practicable means of enforcing his policy, and I would suggest
that this might be done by keeping the number of nominated
Members at its full strength so that in case of need the
Governor would only have to make the necessary declaration,
and would not have to go through the preliminary operation of
adding to the number of nominated Members."
On the 22d of August, the report of Sir David Barbour was
reviewed at length by the Colonial Secretary, Mr. Chamberlain,
in a despatch to Governor Hemming, and the above
recommendations were substantially approved and made
instructions to the Governor. "Two plain facts in connection
with this matter," said the Colonial Secretary, "must force
themselves upon the attention of all who study the question,
still more of all who are called upon to find a solution of
it. The first is, that 'the Home Government,' in Sir David
Barbour's words, 'are in the last resort responsible for the
financial condition of Jamaica.' The second is that as a
'working compromise,' the existing system has failed. It is a
compromise, but it has not worked. I am not now so much
concerned with principle as with practice. As a machine for
doing the work which has to be done the present system has
failed. It is in fact impossible, except where tact and
goodwill and friendly feeling exist in an unusual degree, for
the government of a country to be carried on when those who
are responsible for it are in a permanent minority in the
Legislature. I decline to allow the Jamaica Government to
remain in that position any longer, not merely because it is
unfair to them, but also because, recognizing the ultimate
responsibility of Her Majesty's Government for the solvency of
the Colony, I must ensure that the measures which they may
consider necessary are carried out. I must instruct you,
therefore, before the Legislative Council is again summoned,
to fill up the full number of nominated members and to retain
them, using at your discretion the power given you by the
Constitution to declare measures to be of paramount
importance. You will give the Council and the public to
understand that this step is taken by my express instructions.
It is my hope that the Elected Members will recognise that my
decision is based on public grounds, and has become
inevitable, that they will loyally accept it, and co-operate
with me and with you for the good of the Colony."
Great Britain,
Parliamentary Publications
(Papers by Command:
Jamaica, 1899 [C.-9412] and 1900 [Cd.-125]).
----------JAMESON, Dr. Leander S.: Start--------
JAMESON, Dr. Leander S.:
Administrator of Rhodesia.
See (in this volume)
SOUTH AFRICA (BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA COMPANY):
A. D. 1894-1895.
JAMESON, Dr. Leander S.:
Raid into the Transvaal.
Surrender.
Trial in England.
Imprisonment.
See (in this volume)
SOUTH AFRICA (THE TRANSVAAL): A. D. 1895-1896.
JAMESON, Dr. Leander S.:
The German Emperor's message to President Kruger
concerning the Jameson Raid.
See (in this volume)
SOUTH AFRICA (THE TRANSVAAL): A. D. 1896 (JANUARY).
JAMESON, Dr. Leander S.:
Investigation of the Raid by the Cape Colony Assembly.
See (in this volume)
SOUTH AFRICA (CAPE COLONY): A. D. 1896 (JULY).
JAMESON, Dr. Leander S.:
Indemnity for the Raid claimed by South African Republic.
See (in this volume)
SOUTH AFRICA (THE TRANSVAAL): A. D.1897 (FEBRUARY).
JAMESON, Dr. Leander S.:
British Parliamentary investigation of the Raid.
See (in this volume)
SOUTH AFRICA (THE TRANSVAAL): A. D. 1897 (FEBRUARY-JULY).
----------JAMESON, Dr. Leander S.: End--------
----------JAPAN: Start--------
JAPAN: A. D. 1890-1898.
Rise of Parliamentary parties.
Working of Constitutional Government.
"When the Emperor's nominal authority was converted into a
reality by the overthrow of the Shogun in 1868, the work was
largely due to the four clans of Satsuma, Choshu, Hizen, and
Tosa. Their aim was to destroy the Shogunate and to create an
Imperial Government, and though many other motives actuated
them, these were the two main ideas of the revolution which
grew in importance and left political results. No sooner,
however, was the Imperial Government established than it was
found that the Satsuma clan was strongly divided. There were
within it a party in favour of reform, and another party, led
by Shimazu Saburo and Saigo Takamori, who clung to old
traditions. The sword had not yet given place to the
ballot-box, and the result of a bloody contest was the
annihilation of the reactionaries. There remained, therefore,
the Satsuma men loyal to the Emperor and to the absolute
government of 1868, and with them the Choshu, Hizen, Tosa, and
other clans. Some of these clans had not always been friendly
in the past. They found it difficult to work together now.
Marquis Ito has observed that Japanese politicians are more
prone to destroy than to construct, and an opportunity to
indulge this proclivity soon presented itself.
{278}
Although the four clans were equally pledged to secure
representative government eventually, jealousy of one another
drove two of them to take up this cry as a pretext for
dissolving the alliance. The Tosa clan, now represented by
Count Itagaki, seceded accordingly in 1873, and the Hizen
clan, represented by Count Okuma, followed its example eight
years afterwards. The former organised a party called the
Fuyu-to, or Liberals, and the latter the Kaishin-to, or
Progressives. The two remaining clans of Satsuma and Choshu
were called for shortness the Sat-Cho. Such was the origin of
parliamentary parties in Japan. There was no political issue
at stake; the moving cause was simply clan jealousy, and hence
it was that Hizen and Tosa did not join hands, though both
strenuously opposed the Sat-Cho Government and each posed as
the friend of the people. Consequently, when the first Diet
met, in November, 1890, the Sat-Cho Ministry, with Marquis
Yamagata as Premier, found itself face to face with a bitter
and, it must be added, an unscrupulous opposition."
H. N. G. Bushby,
Parliamentary Government in Japan
(Nineteenth Century, July, 1899).
"The history of the Japanese Parliament [see CONSTITUTION OF
JAPAN, in volume 1], briefly told, is as follows: The first
Diet was opened in November, 1890, and the twelfth session in
May, 1898. In this brief space of time there have been four
dissolutions and five Parliaments. From the very first the
collision between the Government and the Diet has been short
and violent. In the case of the first dissolution, in
December, 1891, the question turned on the Budget estimate,
the Diet insisting on the bold curtailment of items of
expenditure. In the second dissolution, in December, 1893, the
question turned on the memorial to be presented to the Throne,
the Opposition insisting in very strong terms on the necessity
of strictly enforcing the terms of treaties with Western
Powers, the Diet regarding the Cabinet as too weak-handed in
foreign politics. The third dissolution, in June, 1894, was
also on the same question. The Cabinet, in these two latter
cases, was under the presidency of Marquis Ito (then Count),
and was vigorously pushing forward negotiations for treaty
revision, through the brilliant diplomacy of Count Mutsu, the
Foreign Minister. This strict-enforcement agitation was looked
upon by the Government as a piece of anti-foreign agitation—a
Jingo movement—and as endangering the success of the
treaty-revision negotiations. In fact, the revised treaty with
Great Britain was on the latter date well-nigh completed, it
being signed in July following by Lord Kimberley and Viscount
Aoki. It was at this stage that the scepticism of foreign
observers as to the final success of representative
institutions in Japan seemed to reach its height. … Marquis
Ito and some of the most tried statesmen of the time were out
of office, forming a sort of reserve force, to be called out
at any grave emergency. But great was the disappointment when
it was seen that after Marquis Ito, with some of the most
trusted statesmen as his colleagues, had been in office but
little over a year, dissolution followed dissolution, and it
seemed that even the Father of the Constitution was unable to
manage its successful working. … There is no question that the
Constitutional situation was at that time exceedingly critical.
"But when the war broke out the situation was "But when the
war broke out the situation was completely changed. In the
August following the whole nation spoke and acted as if they
were one man and had but one mind. In the two sessions of the
Diet held during the war the Government was most ably
supported by the Diet, and everybody hoped that after the war
was over the same good-feeling would continue to rule the
Diet. On the other hand, it was well known that the Opposition
members in the Diet had clearly intimated that their support
of the Government was merely temporary, and that after the

emergency was over they might be expected to continue their
opposition policy. Sure enough, many months before the opening
of the ninth session, mutterings of deep discontent,
especially with reference to the retrocession of the Liaotung
peninsula, began to be widely heard, and it was much feared
that the former scenes of fierce opposition and blind
obstruction would be renewed. However, as the session
approached (December, 1896), rumours were heard of a certain
'entente' between the Government and the Liberal party, at
that time the largest and the best organised in the country.
And in the coming session the Government secured a majority,
through the support of the Liberals, for most of its important
Bills.
"Now this 'entente' between Marquis Ito and the Liberals was a
great step in advance in the constitutional history of the
country, and a very bold departure in a new direction on the
part of the Marquis. He was known to be an admirer of the
German system, and a chief upholder of the policy of Chozen
Naikaku, or the Transcendental Cabinet policy, which meant a
Ministry responsible to the Emperor alone. Marquis Ito saw
evidently at this stage the impossibility of carrying on the
Government without a secure parliamentary support, and Count
Itagaki, the Liberal leader, saw in the Marquis a faithful
ally, whose character as a great constructive statesman, and
whose history as the author of the Constitution, both forbade
his ever proving disloyal to the Constitution. The 'entente'
was cemented in May following by the entrance of Count Itagaki
into the Cabinet as the Home Minister. On the other hand, this
entente' led to the formation of the Progressist party by the
union of the six Opposition parties, as well as to the union
of Count Okuma, the Progressist leader, and Count Matsugata,
leader of the Kagoshima statesmen. Their united opposition was
now quite effective in harassing the administration. At this
stage certain neutral men, particularly Count Inouye,
suggested compromise, offering a scheme of a Coalition
Cabinet. … But Count Itagaki was firm in opposing such a
compromise, saying it was tantamount to the ignoring of party
distinction, and as such was a retrogression instead of being
a forward step in the constitutional history of the country.
He finally tendered his resignation. When Marquis Ito saw that
the Count was firm in his determination, he, too, resigned,
saying that he felt so deeply obliged to the Liberals for
their late parliamentary support that he would not let the
Count go out of office alone. Thus fell the Ito Ministry after
five years' brilliant service.
{279}
"The new Cabinet, formed in September, 1896, had Count
Matsukata for Premier and Treasury Minister; Count Okuma for
Foreign Minister; and Admiral Kabayama, the hero of the Yaloo
battle, for Home Minister. There were at this time three
things that the nation desired. It wanted to be saved from the
impending business depression. It wished to see Japanese
Chauvinism installed at the Foreign Office, and the shame of
the retrocession of the Liaotung peninsula wiped off. It
hoped, lastly, to see a Parliamentary Government inaugurated
and all the evils of irresponsible bureaucracy removed. The
statesmen now installed in office aspired to satisfy all these
desires, and they were expected to work wonders. But,
unfortunately, the Cabinet lacked unity. … Early in the fall
[of 1897] Count Okuma resigned office, saying that he felt
like a European physician in consultation over a case with
Chinese doctors. … Count Okuma led away the majority of the
Progressist party, and the Government was left with but an
insignificant number of supporters. As soon as the Diet met,
the spirit of opposition manifested was so strong that the
Ministers asked the Emperor to issue an edict for dissolution.
It was expected that the government would at once appeal to
the country with some strong programme. But to the
astonishment of everybody the Ministry resigned the very next
day. In the midst of the general confusion which followed,
Marquis Ito's name was in the mouth of everybody. He was
unanimously hailed as the only man to bring order into the
political situation. In January following [1898] the new
Cabinet was announced with Ito for Premier, Count Inouye for
the Treasury, and Marquis Saionji, one of the best cultured,
most progressive, and, perhaps, also most daring of the
younger statesmen, for Education Minister."
Tokiwo Yokoi,
New Japan and her Constitutional Outlook
(Contemporary Review, September, 1898).
JAPAN: A. D. 1895.
The war with China.
Treaty of Shimonoseki.
Korean independence secured.
Part of Feng-tien, Formosa and the Pescadores ceded by China.
Relinquishment of Feng-tien by Japan.
See (in this volume)
CHINA: A. D. 1894-1895.
JAPAN: A. D. 1896.
Affairs in Formosa.
Retirement of Marquis Ito.
Progressists in power.
Destructive sea-wave.
Serious risings of the Chinese in Formosa against the newly
established Japanese rule in that island were said to have
been caused by insolent and atrocious conduct on the part of
the Japanese soldiery. Possibly a decree which prohibited the
importation of opium into Formosa, and which placed the
medicinal sale of the drug under close restrictions, had
something to do with the discontent. In Japan, the able
statesman, Marquis Ito, was made unpopular by his yielding of
the Liao Tung peninsula (in the Fêng-tien province of
China,—see, in this volume, CHINA: A. D. 1894-1895), under
pressure from Russia, Germany and France. He retired from the
government, and Count Matsukata became Premier in September,
with a cabinet of the Progressist (Kaishinto) party, which
advocated resistance to Russia, and opposition generally to
the encouragement of foreign enterprises in Japan. A frightful
calamity was suffered in June, when a prodigious wave, probably
raised by some submarine volcano, overwhelmed a long stretch
of northeastern coast, destroying some 30,000 people, and
sweeping out of existence a number of considerable towns.
Annual Register, 1896.
JAPAN: A. D. 1897.
New tariff.
A new tariff, regulating the customs duties levied in all
cases wherein Japan is not bound by treaty stipulations, was
adopted in March, 1897. The duties imposed range from 5 to 40
per cent., ad valorem, the higher being laid upon liquors and
tobacco. The "Japan Gazette" is quoted as saying in
explanation: "The statutory tariff fixes the duties to be
collected on every article imported into Japan from countries
that have not concluded tariff conventions with her, or that
are not entitled to the most-favored-nation treatment in
regard to the tariff. Spain, Portugal, Greece, and many other
countries have no tariff conventions with Japan and no
favored-nation clause, in regard to tariff, in their new
treaties with this country. The United States, Belgium,
Holland, Russia, and others have the favored-nation clause and
will get the benefit of the lesser duties on items named in
the different mentioned tariffs. There will, therefore, be two
columns of figures in the printed general tariff list, showing in
the first column the duties on the articles named in the
conventional tariffs, and in the second column the duties on
the same articles imported from countries that have no tariff
convention with Japan, and that are not entitled to
favored-nation treatment. For instance, most textile articles
are subject to a duty of 10 per cent in the conventional
tariff column and to a duty of 15 per cent in the statutory
column."
United States Consular Reports,
July and September, 1897,
pages 475 and 91.
JAPAN: A. D. 1897 (October).
Introduction of the gold standard.
See (in this volume)
MONETARY QUESTIONS: A. D. 1897 (MARCH).
JAPAN: A. D. 1897 (November).
Treaty with the United States and Russia to suspend pelagic
sealing.
See (in this volume)
BERING SEA QUESTIONS.
JAPAN: A. D. 1897-1898.
Contentions with Russia in Korea.
See (in this volume)
KOREA: A. D. 1895-1898.
JAPAN: A. D. 1898-1899.
The struggle between clan government and party government.
"When, in January 1898, Marquis Ito made an attempt to win the
country back to non-party government and efficiency by forming
an independent Ministry in defiance of the Liberal demands, he
was acting no doubt from no mere clan instinct, but, as he
conceived, in the highest interests of the realm. His
experiment was not destined to succeed. In the general
election of March 1898, 109 Progressives and 94 Liberals were
returned as Representatives in a House of 300. A common hunger
for office and a common sense of humiliation at their
treatment by the greater statesmen of the clans united the two
parties under one banner as they had not been united since 1873.
At last they took up in earnest the crusade against clan
government, which, logically, they should have commenced
together exactly a quarter of a century before. They called
their coalition the 'Kensei-to,' or Constitutional Party.
Japan is a country of rapid progress, but she is lucky that
for twenty-five years the formation of the Kensei-to was
deferred while she was content to be guided through difficult
times by clansmen more skilled in statecraft than the usurient
nobodies who were kicking at the heels of Counts Okuma and
Itagaki.
{280}
"Meanwhile Marquis Ito had to decide how he would act. He had
tried to govern with the help of a party and had partially
succeeded. He had tried to govern without one, and had
discovered that it was impossible. The two parties could no
longer be played off one against the other. They were united,
and with fifty new recruits formed the Kensei-to, 253 strong.
There remained only nineteen clan government sympathisers,
calling themselves National Unionists, and twenty-eight
Independents. In these difficult circumstances Marquis Ito's
decision was a bold one, and in its consequences far-reaching.
He advised that Count Okuma, the Progressive leader of the
Kensei-to should be summoned to form a Cabinet in conjunction
with his Liberal colleague, Count Itagaki. His advice was
followed by the Emperor, but with the significant condition
that the Ministries of War and the Navy were to be retained by
clansmen. The Emperor was not disposed to allow constitutional
experiments in these departments. On the 28th of June 1898,
Marquis Ito resigned, and on the 30th the Okuma-Itagaki
Cabinet was formed.
"It now seemed to many that the death-blow had been given to
clan government, and that at last the era of government by
party had commenced. … The elements of which the Kensei-to was
composed were the two great ones of the Progressives, led by
Count Okuma, and the Liberals, led by Count Itagaki. These two
parties acted together in a condition of veiled hostility.
There was coalition without any approach to amalgamation. A
common hunger for office, a common dislike for clan
government, obscured for a little while a mutual jealousy and
distrust. Meanwhile the Kensei-to as a whole, and both wings
of it, were divided into endless clubs, cliques, and
associations. Our own Temperance, Colonial, Church, and China
parties are affable and self-effacing in comparison. Thus, to
name only a few of the political divisions of the Kensei-to,
there were the territorial associations of the Kwanto-kai (led
by Mr. Hoshi), the Hokuriku-kai (led by Mr. Sugita), the
Kyushu Kurabu (led by Mr. Matsuda), the Tohoku-dantai, the
Chugoku-kai, and the Shigoku-kai; there were the Satsuma
section, the Tosa section, the Kakushinto, the Young
Constitutionalists, the Senior Politicians (such as Baron
Kusumoto, Mr. Hiraoka, the chief organiser of the coalition,
and others), the Central Constitutionalist Club, and so forth.
Each clique had its private organisation and animosities; each
aspired to dictate to the Cabinet and secure portfolios for
its members in the House. They combined and recombined among
themselves. … Clearly, however loyally the two leaders wished
to work together, each must find it impossible in such
circumstances to preserve discipline among his own followers.
Indeed, the leaders scarcely tried to lead. … It was
impossible to carry on the Government under such conditions.
The Okuma-Itagaki Cabinet fell, and Field Marshal the Marquis
Yamagata, Premier of the first Japanese Ministry, was summoned
by the Emperor. Once more a clan Ministry, independent of
party, was formed; once more it seemed as though party
government was to be indefinitely postponed. … Marquis
Yamagata formed his Ministry in November 1898, on strictly
clan lines. … Being an old soldier, he wisely determined to
profit by experience and seek an ally. No one knew better than
himself the need of passing the Land Tax Bill, on which the
efficiency of the national defence and the future of Japan
depended. … It was natural, therefore, for him to approach the
Liberals, who had shown themselves favourable to an increase
of the Land Tax. … On the 27th of November the support of the
Liberals was assured, an event which prompted the 'Jiji' to
express its joy that Marquis Yamagata had become a party man,
leaving 'the mouldy, effete cause of the non-partisan
Ministry.' The Government party consisted now of the National
Unionists (in favour of clan government' and loyal followers
of Marquis Yamagata), the Liberals, and a few so-called
Independents (who, of course, speedily formed themselves into
a club), giving the Government a majority of about fifteen or
twenty votes in the House. …
"The first session of Marquis Yamagata's second Ministry will
always be remembered in Japan because the Land Tax Bill was
successfully passed through both Houses. … But the most
important episode of the session, from a parliamentary point
of view, was a remarkable act of self-denial on the part of
the Liberals. In March of this year [1899] they agreed not to
demand office from Marquis Yamagata for any of their number,
though they were to be free to accept such offices as he might
of his own bounty from time to time be able to offer them. If
this unprecedented pledge be loyally adhered to, it marks a
very great stride towards effective party government in the
future. … The hope of the Liberals now lies, not in the
immediate enjoyment of the sweets of office, but in winning
over Marquis Ito to their party. If he were to show the way,
it is probable that many more of the leading clan statesmen
would take sides, in which case, to adopt Mr. Bodley's phrase,
political society would be divided vertically as in England, not
horizontally as in France, and either party on obtaining a
majority in the House would be able to find material in its
own ranks for an efficient Cabinet. At present neither is in
that happy position."
H. N. G. Bushby,
Parliamentary Government in Japan
(Nineteenth Century, July, 1899).
JAPAN: A. D. 1899 (May-July).
Representation in the Peace Conference at The Hague.
See (in this volume)
PEACE CONFERENCE.
JAPAN: A. D. 1899 (July).
Release from the treaties with Western Powers
which gave them exterritorial rights.
Consular jurisdictions abolished.
"Japan has been promoted. The great sign that Europe regards a
Power as only semi-civilised is the demand that all who visit
it, or trade in it, should be exempted from the jurisdiction
of the local Courts, the Consuls acting when necessary as
Judges. This rule is maintained even when the Powers thus
stigmatised send Ambassadors, and is, no doubt, very keenly
resented. It seems specially offensive to the Japanese, who
have a high opinion of their own merits, and they have for
seventeen years demanded the treatment accorded to fully
civilised States. As the alliance of Japan is now earnestly
sought by all Europe this has been conceded, and on Monday,
July 17th, the Consular jurisdiction ceased. (Owing to some
blunder, the powers of the French and Austrian Consuls last a
fortnight longer, but the difference is only formal.) The
Japanese are highly delighted, and the European traders are
not displeased, as with the Consular jurisdictions all
restrictions on trading with the interior disappear."
The Spectator
(London), July 22, 1899.
{281}
The early treaties of Japan with Western Powers, which gave
the latter what are called rights of extra-territoriality, or
exterritoriality, for all their subjects (the right, that is,
to administer their own laws, by their own consular or other
courts, upon their own subjects, within a foreign country),
were modified in 1894. Japan then became free to extinguish
the foreign courts on her soil at the end of five years, upon
giving a year's notice, which she did as stated above. Her
government has thus attained a recognized peerage in
sovereignty with the governments of the Western world. At the
same time, the whole country has been thrown open to foreign
trade—restricted previously to certain ports.
In careful preparation of the Japanese people for this
important change in their relations with the foreign world,
the following imperial rescript was issued at the end of June,
1899: "The revision of the treaties, our long cherished aim,
is to-day on the eve of becoming an accomplished fact; a
result which, while it adds materially to the responsibilities
of our Empire, will greatly strengthen the basis of our
friendship with foreign countries. It is our earnest wish that
our subjects, whose devoted loyalty in the discharge of their
duties is conspicuous, should enter earnestly into our
sentiments in this matter, and, in compliance with the great
policy of opening the country, should all unite with one heart
to associate cordially with the peoples from afar, thus
maintaining the character of the nation and enhancing the
prestige of the Empire. In view of the responsibilities that
devolve upon us in giving effect to the new treaties, it is
our will that our ministers of state, acting on our behalf,
should instruct our officials of all classes to observe the
utmost circumspection in the management of affairs, to the end
that subjects and strangers alike may enjoy equal privileges
and advantages, and that, every source of dissatisfaction
being avoided, relations of peace and amity with all nations
may be strengthened and consolidated in perpetuity."
Obedient to this command, the Minister President of State,
Marquis Yamagata, published the following instruction on the
1st of July: "The work of revising the treaties has caused
deep solicitude to His August Majesty since the centralization
of the Government, and has long been an object of earnest desire
to the people. More than twenty years have elapsed since the
question was opened by the dispatch of a special embassy to
the West in 1871. Throughout the whole of that interval,
numerous negotiations were conducted with foreign countries
and numerous plans discussed, until finally, in 1884, Great
Britain took the lead in concluding a revised treaty, and the
other powers all followed in succession, so that now the
operation of the new treaties is about to take place on the
17th of July and the 4th of August.
"The revision of the treaties in the sense of placing on a
footing of equality the intercourse of this country with
foreign states was the basis of the great liberal policy
adopted at the time of the restoration, and that such a course
conduces to enhance the prestige of the Empire and to promote
the prosperity of the people is a proposition not requiring
demonstration. But if there should be anything defective in
the methods adopted for giving effect to the treaties, not
merely will the object of revision be sacrificed, but also the
country's relations with friendly powers will be impaired and its
prestige may be lowered. It is, of course, beyond question
that any rights and privileges accruing to us as a result of
treaty revision should be duly asserted. But there devolves
upon the Government of this Empire the responsibility, and
upon the people of this Realm the duty, of protecting the
rights and privileges of foreigners, and of sparing no effort
that they may one and all be enabled to reside in the country
confidently and contentedly. It behooves all officials to
clearly apprehend the august intentions and to pay profound
attention to these points."
With still finer care for the honor and good name of Japan,
the following instruction to schools was published on the same
day by Count Kabayma, the Minister of State for Education:
"The schools under the direct control of the Government serve
as models to all the public and private educational
institutions throughout the country. It is therefore my
earnest desire that the behavior of the students at such
schools should be regulated with notably strict regard to the
canons of propriety, so that they may show themselves worthy
of the station they occupy. The date of the operation of the
revised treaties is now imminent, and His Imperial Majesty has
issued a gracious rescript. It may be expected that the coming
and going of foreigners in the interior of the country will
henceforth grow more frequent, and if at such a time students
be left without proper control, and suffered to neglect the
dictates of propriety by cherishing sentiments of petty
arrogance and behaving in a violent, outrageous, or vulgar
manner, not only will the educational systems be brought into
discredit, but also the prestige of the country will be
impaired and its reputation may even be destroyed. For that
reason I have addressed an instruction to the local governors
urging them to guard against any defects in educational
methods, and I am now constrained to appeal to the Government
schools which serve for models. I trust that those upon whom
the functions of direction and teaching devolve, paying
respectful attention to the august intention, will discharge
their duties carefully towards the students, and, by securing
the latter's strict adherence to rules, will contrive that
they shall serve as a worthy example to the schools throughout
the country."
United States Consular Reports,
October, 1899, page 285.
JAPAN: A. D. 1899 (August).
Prohibition of religious instruction in the government schools.
Some important regulations for the national schools were
promulgated in August by the Minister of Education, having the
effect, probably intended, of discouraging attendance at the
Christian mission schools, and stimulating a preference for
the schools of the national system. They forbade religious
exercises or instruction in any schools that adopt the
curriculum of the national schools, while, at the same time,
they allow admission from no others to the higher schools of
the national system without examination. Students in the
middle schools of the national system are exempted from
conscription, while others are not. That the aim in this
policy is to strengthen the national schools, rather than to
interfere with religious freedom, seems probable.
{282}
JAPAN: A. D. 1899 (December).
Adhesion to the arrangement of an "open door" commercial
policy in China.
See (in this volume)
CHINA: A. D. 1899-1000 (SEPTEMBER-FEBRUARY).
JAPAN: A. D. 1900.
Naval strength.
See (in this volume)
NAVIES OF THE SEA POWERS.
JAPAN: A. D. 1900 (June-December).
Co-operation with the Powers in China.
See (in this volume)
CHINA.
JAPAN: A. D. 1900 (July)
Failure of attempts to entrust the Japanese government
with the rescue of the foreign Legations at Peking.
See (in this volume)
CHINA: A. D. 1900 (JUNE-JULY).
JAPAN: A. D. 1900 (August-October).
The new party of Marquis Ito.
The letters of the Tokio correspondent of the London "Times"
describe interestingly the genesis of a new party of which
Marquis Ito has taken the lead, and which took control of the
government in October, 1900. Various parties, the career of
which the writer reviews, had been formed in opposition to the
veteran statesmen who continued to hold the reins of government
after constitutional forms were introduced in 1880. But very
few of the party politicians who constructed these parties,
says the writer, had held high office. "They were without the
prestige of experience. To put such men on the administrative
stage while the gallery was occupied by the greybeards—the
'Meiji statesmen,' as they are called—who had managed the
country's affairs since the Restoration, would have seemed a
strange spectacle in the eyes of the nation. The Meiji
statesmen, however, persistently declined to be drawn into the
ranks of the political parties. They gave the latter plenty of
rope; they even allowed them to administer the State, which
essay ended in a fiasco; and they took them into alliances
which served chiefly to demonstrate the eagerness of these
politicians for office and emoluments. But there was no
amalgamation. The line of demarcation remained indelible. …
"The political parties, discovering the impossibility of
becoming a real power in the State without the coöperation of
the Meiji statesmen, asked Marquis Ito to assume their
leadership. Marquis Ito may be said to possess everything that
his country can give him. He has the unbounded confidence of
his Sovereign and his countrymen; he is loaded with titles and
honours, and a word from him can make or mar a Ministry. It
seems strange that such a man should step down from his
pedestal to become a party leader; to occupy a position which
can bring no honour and must at once create enemies. Yet
Marquis Ito has consented. He issued his manifesto. It is in
two respects a very remarkable document. First, it tells the
politicians that their great fault has been self-seeking; that
they have set party higher than country; office and emolument
above public duty and political responsibility. Secondly, it
informs them in emphatic terms that Parliamentary Cabinets are
unconstitutional in Japan; that "Ministers and officials must
be appointed by the Sovereign without any reference to their
party connexions. The politicians who place themselves under
Marquis Ito's leadership must eschew the former failing and
abandon the latter heresy. It would be impossible to imagine a
more complete reversal of the tables. The men who, ten years
ago, asked the nation to condemn the Meiji statesmen on a
charge of political self-seeking are now publicly censured by
the chief of these statesmen for committing the very same sin
in their own persons; and the men who for ten years have made
Parliamentary Cabinets the text of their agitation now enrol
themselves in a party which openly declares such Cabinets to
be unconstitutional."
The new party calls itself the "Association of Friends of the
Constitution" (Rikken Seiyukai). "In its ranks are found the
whole of the Liberals, and many members of the Diet who had
hitherto maintained an independent attitude, so that it can
count on 152 supporters among the 300 members of the Lower
House. … The Opposition, the Progressists, command only 90
votes, and the remainder of the House is composed mainly of
men upon whose support the Cabinet can always reckon. In fact,
now for the first time since the Diet opened, does the
direction of State affairs come into the hands of Ministers
who may rest assured of Parliamentary cooperation."
Marquis Yamagata, who had conducted the administration for
nearly two years, resigned in October, and Marquis Ito brought
his new party into power. His Cabinet "does not include one of
the elder statesmen—the 'clan statesmen'—except the marquis
himself. Among the seven portfolios that have changed
hands—those of War and of the Navy are still held as before—
three have been given to unequivocal party politicians,
leaders of the Liberals, and four to men who may be regarded
as Marquis Ito's disciples. … The Yamagata Cabinet consisted
entirely of clan statesmen and their followers. The Ito
Cabinet has a clan statesman for leader and his nominees for
members. It may be called essentially a one man Ministry, so
far does the Premier tower above the heads of his colleagues."
JAPAN: A. D. 1900-1901.
Strategic importance of Korea.
Interest in the designs of Russia.
See (in this volume)
KOREA: A. D. 1900.
JAPAN: A. D. 1901.
Movement to erect a monument to commemorate the
visit of Commodore Perry.
A movement in Japan to erect a monument at Kurihama, the
landing place of the American expedition, commanded by
Commodore Matthew C. Perry, which visited Japan in 1853 and
brought about the opening of that country to intercourse with
the western world (see, in volume 3, JAPAN: A. D. 1852-1888),
was announced to the State Department at Washington by the U.
S. Consul-General at Yokohama, in March, 1901. The undertaking
is directed by the "American Association of Japan," of which
the Japanese Minister of Justice is President, and its purpose
is to commemorate an event which the Association, in a
published circular, declares to be "the most memorable" in the
annals of Japan. The language of the circular, in part, is as
follows: "This visit of Commodore Perry was in a word the
turning of the key which opened the doors of the Japanese
Empire to friendly intercourse with the United States, and
subsequently to the rest of the nations of Europe on similar
terms, and may in truth be regarded as the most memorable
event in our annals—an event which paved the way for and
accelerated the introduction of a new order of things, an
event that enabled the country to enter upon the unprecedented
era of National ascendancy in which we are now living.
{283}
Japan has not forgotten—nor will she ever forget—that next to
her reigning and most beloved sovereign, whose high virtues
and great wisdom are above all praise, she owes, in no small
degree, her present prosperity to the United States of
America, in that the latter rendered her a great and lasting
service already referred to. After the lapse of these
forty-eight years, her people, however, have come to entertain
but an uncertain memory of Kurihama, and yet it was there that
Commodore Perry first trod on the soil of Japan and for the
first time awoke the country from a slumberous seclusion of
three centuries—there it was where first gleamed the light
that has ever since illumined Japan's way in her new career of
progress."
----------JAPAN: End--------
JESUS, Discovery of a fragment of the Logia or Sayings of.
See (in this volume)
ARCHÆOLOGICAL RESEARCH: EGYPT: DISCOVERY OF A FRAGMENT.
----------JEWS: Start--------
JEWS:
Discovery of the sole mention of the people of Israel in
Egyptian inscriptions.
See (in this volume)
ARCHÆOLOGICAL RESEARCH: EGYPT: RESULTS.
JEWS:
General results of recent archæological research as affecting
our knowledge of the ancient Hebrews.
See (in this volume)
ARCHÆOLOGICAL RESEARCH: IN BIBLE LANDS.
JEWS: A. D. 1897:
Freedom of residence in Russia given
to the university educated.
See (in this volume)
RUSSIA: A. D. 1897.
JEWS: A. D. 1897-1901.
The Zionist movement.
"The three closing days of August [1897] saw a congress at
Basle concerning the significance of which friends and foes
alike seem already pretty well agreed. It was the Congress of
Zionists. Zionists! Until then that word was almost unknown to
the public at large. Zionism virtually made its bow to the
Gentile world at Basle, and disclosed for the first time what
its aims and its needs were. … It was in my work, 'The Jewish
State,' which appeared a year and a half ago, that I first
formulated what the Congress at Basle virtually adopted as an
axiom. In the terms of that definition: 'Zionism has for its
object the creation of a home, secured by public rights, for
those Jews who either cannot or will not be assimilated in the
country of their adoption.'
"Nothing was more instructive at the Basle Congress than the
vigour—I might almost say violence—with which the
representatives of the great Jewish strata of population
resisted any attempt to limit the guarantees for a State based
on public rights. The executive appointed to draw up a
programme had proposed 'a legally secured home.' The
delegates, however, were not satisfied, and clamoured for an
alteration to 'secured on the basis of international rights.'
It was only by adopting the intermediary expression 'public
rights' that an agreement was arrived at. The significance of
this logomachy is, that what the Jews desire is not to acquire
more tracts of land, but a country for the Jewish people, and
to emphasise that desire in terms as plain as possible without
wounding certain legitimate and sovereign susceptibilities. We
can acquire land any day in our private right everywhere. But
that is not the point with Zionists. In our case we have
nothing to do with private rights. That will come later—as
well as the land speculators—once our movement has achieved
success. What the Zionists are alone directing their attention
to is the 'public rights' idea. In that they hope to find a
remedy for the old evil. Were I to express myself
paradoxically, I should say that a country belonging to the
Jews on the basis of public rights, even though down to the
very last parcel it was the legally secured property of
non-Jews, would mean the final solution of the Jewish
question. … We have held a gathering at Basle before the whole
world, and there we saw the national consciousness and the
popular will break forth, at times like a convulsive upheaval.
To Basle came Jews of all countries, of all tongues, of all
parties, and of all forms of religious confession. There were
more than 200 representatives of the Jewish people—most of
them delegates for hundreds and thousands. Men from Roumania
alone brought over 50,000 signatures of those who had sent
them there. There surely was never such a motley assembly of
opinions in such a narrow space before. On the other hand,
there would certainly have been more conflict of opinion in
any other deliberative assembly than there was in this. …
"It would … appear to be to the interest of Turkey to come to
an arrangement with the Jews. But, what are the interests
which other Governments would have in assisting the
realisation of a legally guaranteed Jewish home? The interest
would vary with each country, but it is present in some form
or other everywhere. It would mean the drawing off of an
unhappy and detested element of population which is reduced
more and more to a condition of despair, and which, scattered
over the face of the earth, and in a state of unrest, must
perforce identify itself with the most extreme parties
everywhere. Governments and all friends of the existing order
of things cannot bring themselves to believe that, by helping
us in the solution we propose, they could give peace to an
element which has been driven to revolution and rendered
dangerous through its dispersion. That a highly conservative
people, like the Jews, have always been driven into the ranks
of revolutionists is the most lamentable feature in the
tragedy of our race. Zionism would mean an end to all that. We
should see results accrue for the general condition of
mankind, the full benefits of which we cannot even guess.
There are, of course, a great number of existing political
difficulties to be overcome, but these, given the necessary
good will, might be surmounted."
Theodor Herzl,
The Zionist Congress
(Contemporary Review, October, 1897).
{284}
"The programme of the Philo-Zionists as defined in their
printed constitution is as follows:
(a) To foster the national idea in Israel.
(b) To promote the colonization of Palestine and neighbouring
territories by Jews, by establishing new colonies and
assisting those already established.
(c) To diffuse the knowledge of Hebrew as a living language.
(d) To further the moral, intellectual, and material status of
Israel.
The English Association, known as the Chovevi Zion, is
presided over by Colonel Albert Edward Goldsmid, Assistant
Adjutant-General of Her Majesty's Forces; it has 35
established 'Tents' spread through the length and breadth of
the United Kingdom. … Similar associations have been
established in America, Germany, France, Russia, Austria,
Denmark, Switzerland, and other countries; and there is a
central committee meeting at Paris, where the organisation of
new colonies and development of existing ones in the Holy Land
is systematically carried out. Even before these associations
had been called into existence Baron Edmond de Rothschild of
Paris, encouraged by the success of the agricultural schools
at Jaffa, founded by the late Charles Netter, had devoted his
vast influence and his open purse to the work; and there is a
separate administration in Palestine charged with the control
and management of what are known as 'the Baron's colonies.'
"To-day we have in Palestine between twenty and thirty
distinct colonies or communities spreading along the coast
from Askalon in the south to Carmel in the north, and along
the Jordan from the Waters of Meron to the Sea of Galilee in
the east. The population of these colonies varies from 100 to
700 souls, and they may safely be estimated to number 10,000
souls in all, independently of the large number of Jewish day
labourers from neighbouring towns and villages, to whom they
give occasional employment. There are 50,000 more Jews—mostly
refugees—in the various Holy Cities, and the immediate problem
is to get these—or the better part of them—also on the land.
The current language of the colonists is the Hebrew of the
Bible, although many of them have acquired the native Arabic,
and also French, which is taught in their schools. They have
their places of worship, their houses of study, their modest
institutes, their public baths, and in fact the counterpart in
small of all the features of the model European village: and
they have, thanks to the Baron and the Philo-Zionists'
Associations, the most modern appliances and complete
installations for the prosecution of their agricultural
works."
Herbert Bentwich,
Philo-Zionists and Anti-Semites
(Nineteenth Century, October, 1897).
"At the beginning of March, 1898, an important Conference was
held in London, attended by delegates from nearly 50
societies, representing 10,000 English Zionists, and
resolutions were passed adopting the International programme,
and making provisions for a federation of all the English
Zionist bodies. Similar conferences were held in New York, in
Berlin, in Galatz (Roumania), and other great centres; and
local federations were everywhere formed to give greater
strength and solidity to the general organization. At the
second International Congress, which was held at Basle in
August, 1898, and was attended by an imposing body of more
than 500 delegates, the Executive Committee were able to
report that the 'Basle programme' had received the support of
913 Zionist organizations (out of which over 700 had sprung up
since the first Congress), it being calculated that these
represented at least a quarter of a million of active members.
The Congress had become the authorised representative and
exponent of the people's wishes, and the Zionists had become a
power to be reckoned with in any settlement of the Jewish
question. Prominent among the attendants at this world
gathering were the Rabbis—crown officials from orthodox Russia
and Poland, as well as the elect of reform congregations from
America—who took an active interest in the settlement of the
programme of work for the ensuing year, which was the main
business of the meeting."
H. Bentwich,
The Progress of Zionism
(Fortnightly Review, December, 1898).
At the International Zionist Congress which assembled in
London on the 13th of August, 1900, the report of the
executive committee on the progress which the movement has
made showed as follows: "In Russia there are at least 100,000
members of Zionist societies; in England the movement is
supported by 38 societies, as against 16 last year, and all
these societies have increased membership. Thanks to the work
of the English Zionist Federation Zionism has made great
headway in England. In the United States there are 135
societies, as against 102 last year. Notwithstanding the war
in South Africa, the contributions towards the expenses of the
movement have been well maintained. Having regard to the
returns received by the executive committee the reporter felt
no hesitation in saying that to-day the vast majority of the
Jewish nation were in favour of Zionism."
London Times,
August 15, 1900.
Late in December, 1900, it was announced at Vienna that the
Sultan had issued or renewed a decree, according to which the
Jews are forbidden to remain in Palestine for longer than
three months. This measure, which applies both to traders and
pilgrims, further prohibits the acquisition by Jews of landed
property. It was suggested that the wholesale exodus of Jews
from Russia and their recent emigration from Rumania gave rise
to the apprehension that they might overcrowd Palestine. This
apprehension is said to have been strengthened by the
increasing activity of the Zionists, who are suspected in
certain circles in Constantinople of pursuing distinct
political ends. According to another suggestion, Russia had
grown jealous of the Jewish colonization of Palestine, fearing
it to be in the interest of German policy, and had used
influence to check it.
"Viewed merely on its prosaic side, Zionism is by no means a
visionary scheme. The aggregation of Jews in Palestine is only
a matter of time, and it is better that they should be
aggregated there under their own laws and religion, and the
mild suzerainty of the Sultan, than under the semi-barbarous
restrictions of Russia or Roumania, and exposed to recurrent
popular outbreaks. True, Palestine is a ruined country, and
the Jews are a broken people, but neither is beyond
recuperation. Palestine needs a people, Israel needs a
country. If, in regenerating the Holy Land, Israel could
regenerate itself, how should the world be other than the
gainer? In the solution of the problem of Asia, which has just
succeeded the problem of Africa, Israel might play no
insignificant part. Already the colony of Rishon le Zion has
obtained a gold medal for its wines from the Paris Exposition,
which is not prejudiced in the Jew's favor.
{285}
We may be sure the spiritual wine of Judæa would again pour
forth likewise that precious vintage which the world has drunk
for so many centuries. And as the unscientific activities of
the colonization societies would have paved the way for the
pastoral and commercial future of Israel in its own country,
so would the rabbinical sing-song in musty rooms prove to have
been but the unconscious preparation of the ages for the
Jerusalem University.
"But Palestine belongs to the Sultan, and the Sultan refuses
to grant the coveted Judæan Charter, even for dangled
millions. Is not this fatal? No, it matters as little as that
the Zionists could not pay the millions, if suddenly called
upon. They have barely collected a quarter of a million (in
English pounds). But there are millionaires enough to come to
the rescue, once the charter was dangled before the Zionists.
It is not likely that the Rothschilds would see themselves
ousted from their familiar headship in authority and
well-doing, nor would the millions left by Baron Hirsch be
altogether withheld. And the Sultan's present refusal is
equally unimportant, because a national policy is independent
of transient moods and transient rulers. The only aspect that
really matters is whether Israel's face be, or be not, set
steadily Zionwards,—for decades and even for centuries. Much
less turns on the Sultan's mind than on Dr. Herzl's. Will he
lose patience? for leaders like Herzl are not born in every
century."
I. Zangwill,
The Wandering Jew and the New Century
(Sunday School Times, January 12, 1901).
JEWS: A. D. 1899.
In Palestine.
"In view of the impetus given the Zionist movement by the
second Zionist congress, held at Basel in September, and also
by the Palestine journey of Emperor Wilhelm II, the present
status of Jews in Palestine becomes a matter of general
interest. Out of a total population in Palestine of some
200,000 souls, about 40,000 are Jews, as against 14,000 twenty
years ago. In Jerusalem, there are 22,000 Jews, half of whom
have immigrated from Europe and America and are called
Asehkenazim to distinguish them from the oriental Israelites,
the Sephardists. Nine hundred and sixty families, numbering
about 5,000 souls, inhabit the twenty-two Jewish colonies in
Palestine which have been founded and subsidized by Europeans
—ten by Baron Edmond de Rothschild, representing the Alliance
Israélite Universelle; the rest by the Jewish Colonization
Association and by the Odessa Company.
"The idea of gathering in Palestine homeless Jews scattered
all over the globe was championed in the forties by Moses
Montefiore, but with indifferent success. In the eighties,
however, the immigration of Jews to Palestine assumed
significant proportions. Of the twenty-two present colonies,
the 'Jacob Memorial' is the largest, supporting more than
1,000 souls. It boasts a graded school (five teachers), a
synagogue, etc., and 4,000 acres of land under cultivation, on
which are raised fruit (chiefly grapes), honey, and mulberry
leaves, the rearing of silkworms being a leading industry. The
'First to Zion' is another quite important colony, owning
2,000 acres of land. Some forty two-storied stone dwelling
houses greet the eye of the approaching stranger; also a
school house with a Hebrew library, a synagogue, and a
hospital. One million five hundred thousand vines and 25,000
olive, almond, orange, and mulberry trees belong to this
colony, which also possesses famous wine cellars. The 'Hope of
Israel,' a mile beyond Yafa, in the plains of Sharon, is
perhaps best known for its agricultural school, in which one
hundred or more pupils are taught gardening. Recently, a high
school for Jewish girls was established in Yafa. The 'Head
Corner Stone,' amid the hills beyond Tiberias, with
snow-capped Hermon in the background, is another quite
prosperous Jewish colony in Palestine. Being near the source
of the Jordan, water is plentiful; and its situation, high up
above the level of Lake Gennesareth, insures fair climatic
conditions. In the 'Door of Hope,' dairy farming is profitably
followed and experiments made in tea planting. This colony is
said to have 1,000,000 vines.
"Entirely irrespective of whether or not the Zionists will
succeed in awakening in the Jewish people a national spirit
and forming a Judean monarchy or republic, with its parliament
in Jerusalem and its representation in foreign capitals, the
present agitation makes for the development of a country which
is but a shadow of its former self, and which will generously
respond to modern influences. The Sultan seems quite disposed
to grant railway, harbor, and other franchises, and it is
possible that the new Jewish Colonial Bank, the organization
of which was decided upon in Basel, will be permitted, under
certain guaranties, to play an important part in the
industrial advancement and growth of Palestine. The movement
is furthermore bringing out new qualities in the Jews residing
in Palestine. They are no longer content with studying the
Talmud and living on charity, but are waking to the fact, as
the Hebrew would put it, that to till the ground is worship of
God.
"It should not be inferred from statements here made that
peace and prosperity have suddenly become the lot of the Jews
in Palestine. Only a few days ago, Rev. William King Eddy, of
Sidon, returned from beyond the Jordan, and he informs me that
a Jewish colony situated not far from El Mzerib (on the
caravan route from Damascus to Mekka) was recently attacked by
predatory Bedouin tribes. The settlers were all driven away,
their gardens and crops destroyed. Even a road built by the
Jews to connect their frontier colony with older ones in
Galilee, west of the river, was at least partially
obliterated. Taxes are more oppressive than ever, officials
are corrupt, and prohibitive measures regarding immigration
are still in force, although inadequate. I think, however, I
am justified in saying that the prospects are brighter than
ever for the Jews in Palestine and for Palestine itself.
European influence has obtained a foothold in the country, and
the tide of modern ideas can not be long debarred. Only four
or five weeks ago, an English company announced its
determination to build a broad-gauge railway from the sea at
Haifa through the very heart of Samaria and Galilee to
Damascus and on to Bagdad, and active operations have already
commenced."
G. B. Ravndal,
United States Consul at Beirut
(United States Consular Reports, April, 1899, page 691).
{286}
JEWS: A. D. 1901.
Turkish order regulating visits to Palestine.
A Press telegram from Washington, February 16, 1901, states
that "Consul Merrill, at Jerusalem, has reported to the State
Department that the Turkish Minister of the Interior at
Constantinople has issued an order relative to Jews who visit
Palestine, which went into effect on January 29. The order
applies to an Jews who come to Palestine from other countries
as pilgrims or visitors. The conditions of the order are as
follows: On arriving at Joppa the visitor must deliver his
passport to the Turkish authorities and receive therefor a
Turkish document. The visitor is allowed to stay in the
country three months, when he must leave, surrendering the
Turkish permit and receiving his own. Foreign consuls are to
compel the Jews who overstay the three months' period to leave
Turkey."
----------JEWS: End--------
JOAN OF ARC, The Beatification of.
The beatification of Joan of Are, recommended by the
Congregation of Rites, at Rome, was pronounced by the Pope,
January 28, 1894.
JOHANNESBURG: Origin.
See (in this volume)
SOUTH AFRICA (THE TRANSVAAL): A. D. 1885-1890.
JOHANNESBURG: A. D. 1895-1896.
Revolutionary conspiracy of Uitlanders.
See (in this volume)
SOUTH AFRICA (THE TRANSVAAL): A. D. 1895-1896.
JOHANNESBURG: A. D. 1900.
Taken by the British forces.
See (in this volume))
SOUTH AFRICA (THE FIELD OF WAR): A. D. 1900 MAY-JUNE).
JOINT HIGH COMMISSION, Anglo-American.
See (in this volume)
CANADA: A. D. 1898-1899.
JOLO, The Sultan of.
See (in this volume)
PHILIPPINE ISLANDS: A. D. 1899 (MAY-AUGUST).
JONES, Samuel M., Mayor of Toledo.
See (in this volume)
TOLEDO, OHIO: A. D. 1899-1901.
JOUBERT, General Pietrus Jacobus:
In the South African War.
See (in this volume)
SOUTH AFRICA (THE FIELD OF WAR):
A. D. 1899 (OCTOBER-DECEMBER).
JOUBERT, General Pietrus Jacobus:
Death.
See (in this volume)
SOUTH AFRICA (THE FIELD OF WAR): A. D. 1900 (MARCH).
JUBILEE, The Diamond, of Queen Victoria.
See (in this volume)
ENGLAND: A. D. 1897 (JUNE).
JUBILEE OF THE HOLY YEAR 1900, Proclamation of the Universal.
See (in this volume)
PAPACY: A. D. 1900-1901.
JU JU SACRIFICE.
See (in this volume)
NIGERIA: A. D. 1807.
K.
KAFIRISTAN: Its conquest by the Afghans.
See (in this volume)
AFGHANISTAN: A. D. 1896.
KAGAYAN, or CAGAYAN, The American acquisition of.
See (in this volume)
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1898 (JULY-DECEMBER).
KAIRWAN: Opened to tourists.
See (in this volume)
TUNIS: A. D. 1881-1898.
KAISER WILHELM II.
See (in this volume)
GERMANY.
KAISER WILHELM SHIP CANAL, The.
See (in this volume)
GERMANY: A. D. 1895 (JUNE).

KAMERUNS, The: Cost of maintenance.
See (in this volume)
GERMANY: A. D. 1809 (JUNE).
KANG YEU-WEI, Chinese reformer.
See (in this volume)
CHINA: A. D. 1898 (JUNE-SEPTEMBER), and after.
KAPILAVASTU, Discovery of the ruins of.
See (in this volume)
BUDDHA.
KARNAK, Fall of eleven columns of the temple of.
See (in this volume)
ARCHÆOLOGICAL RESEARCH: EGYPT: FALL OF KARNAK COLUMNS.
KASSALA, Italian evacuation of.
See (in this volume)
ITALY: A. D. 1897.
KATIPUNAN, The.
See (in this volume)
PHILIPPINE ISLANDS: A. D. 1896-1898.
KEARSARGE, Loss of the.
The United States cruiser Kearsarge, destroyer of the
Alabama, was totally wrecked, February 2. 1894, on
Roncadore Reef, off the Mosquito coast, her crew being
saved.
KENGI.
See (in this volume)
ARCHÆOLOGICAL RESEARCH: BABYLONIA: AMERICAN EXPLORATION.
KENTUCKY: A. D. 1895-1900.
Political conflicts.
Assassination of Governor Goebel.
In 1895 a Republican Governor, William O. Bradley, was elected
in Kentucky by a majority of nearly 9,000 votes. In 1896 the
conflict of political parties became fierce and dangerous, on
the occasion of the election of au United States Senator to
succeed the Democratic incumbent, J. C. S. Blackburn, whose
term would expire March 3d, 1897. On joint ballot in the
Legislature the Republicans and Democrats had 68 votes each,
and the Populists had 2,—the latter thus bolding a balance of
power: But the two Populist members were divided, and the
Democrats could not act together, owing to the division in
their party on the money question. The "sound-money" Democrats
refused support to Senator Blackburn, who obtained the caucus
nomination of his party for re-election, and their votes were
scattered. The Republicans were united on a candidate, and
secured one of the Populist votes, but needed one more to give
them a majority. They attempted to win the needed vote by
unseating a Democrat in the Lower House whose seat was
contested; but the Democrats promptly neutralized their move
by unseating two Republicans in the Upper House. The passions
excited by the factious contest had by this time become so
violent and threatening that in March, 1897, the Governor of
the State deemed it necessary to call out several companies of
militia to preserve peace at Frankfort. In the end, the
Legislature adjourned without electing an United States
Senator; but a special session was called and the election
accomplished, on the 28th of April, William J. Deboe,
Republican, winning the senatorial seat.
{287}
In the following year (1898) the Democrats secured strong
majorities in both branches of the Legislature, and, under the
lead of Senator William Goebel, passed an election bill which was
bitterly denounced as a contrivance for fraud. It created a
State election board, appointed by the existing Legislature
for four years, which board should name three commissioners in
each county, by whom all election and registration officers
should be chosen. Notwithstanding this provision of partisan
returning officers, the Democrats were so divided on the
silver question in the gubernatorial election of 1899, and
further weakened by personal hostilities which Goebel, who
became their candidate for governor, had stirred up, that the
official returns of the election gave William S. Taylor, the
Republican candidate, a plurality of more than 2,000 votes
over Goebel. There had been fear of riot in Louisville on
election day, and the Governor had called out State troops to
preserve order. The defeated party claimed that military
interference in that city had made the election illegal, and
demanded that the returns from Louisville should be thrown
out. On both sides there were accusations of fraud, and a
dangerous state of political excitement ensued again. But two
of the three members (all Democrats) of the State Board of
Election Commissioners decided that Taylor, the Republican
candidate, had been lawfully elected, and he was inaugurated
Governor on the 12th of December. Goebel and his partisans,
refusing to accept the decision, determined to unseat Governor
Taylor, by authority of the Legislature, in which they
controlled a considerable majority of votes.
The Legislature met and organized on the 1st of January, 1900.
The Governor prepared to defend his possession of the office
by summoning troops of the State Guard from the strong
Republican districts of the mountain region, and 1,000 or more
armed men arrived in Frankfort on the 25th. There had been
fighting between the two parties already, and the situation
now became desperately strained. Some kind of a bloody outcome
seemed inevitable, but no one could anticipate the barbarous
tragedy which ensued. As Senator Goebel was walking to the
state house, on the 30th of January, he was shot from one of
its windows, by a hidden assassin, receiving a wound from
which he died February 3d. The Legislature at once closed its
investigation of the election, and voted to recognize the
dying William E. Goebel as Governor, with J. C. W. Beckham as
his Lieutenant and the successor to the office in the event of
his death. Governor Taylor issued an address to the people of
the State, denouncing the murder and enjoining the
preservation of order. At the same time he proclaimed an
adjournment of the Legislature, closed the State House against
it, and summoned its members to reassemble on the 6th of
February, not at Frankfort, but at the distant small mountain
town of London. Goebel, on his death-bed, took the oath of
office, and issued orders dismissing Governor Taylor's
Adjutant-General, appointing another in his place, and
commanding the force at Frankfort to return to their homes.
The President of the United States was applied to by Governor
Taylor for recognition and support, but decided that he had no
authority to interfere. The supporters of Goebel applied with
more effect to the Circuit Court of Kentucky, which issued a
writ enjoining Governor Taylor from the use of armed force to
prevent the Legislature from meeting. A clerk who succeeded in
serving the writ by tacking it on the door of the Governor's
office was seized and held prisoner by the military, and a
writ of habeas corpus requiring his deliverance was disobeyed
for several days. All authority was breaking down, and a state
of political chaos being produced. To save the State from
actual anarchy and civil war, a conference of leaders in both
parties was held at Louisville, February 5, and an agreement
reached to withdraw troops from the capital, allow the
Legislature to meet there, and abide by its action, with
promise to repeal the obnoxious election law. Governor Taylor
refused acceptance of the agreement. He dismissed the troops,
however, on the 12th, and called the Legislature to meet at
the capital. The Democratic members of that body were holding
meetings at Louisville, the Republican members at London. The
latter obeyed the call to Frankfort, while the former
continued at Louisville, both fragments claiming to be the
Legislature of the State. A petition to the United States
Circuit Court, for injunctions against the Democratic
claimants for certain of the minor State offices, was denied
by Judge Taft on the 14th.
On the 21st, Republican and Democratic leaders came to another
agreement, that the gubernatorial question should be settled
in the courts,—first in those of the State, and then carried
by appeal to the Supreme Court of the United States. This
agreement prevailed, and the case, as between Governor Taylor
and Governor Beckham (declared to be Governor by a majority of
the members of the Legislature after Governor Goebel's death)
was peacefully adjudicated in favor of the latter. The Circuit
Court of the State recognized the Legislature's decision of
the election as final; the Court of Appeals, with only one of
three Republican judges dissenting, did the same, April 6. On
April 30 the case was argued, on appeal, before the Supreme
Court of the United States, and on the 21st of May that
tribunal decided that it had no jurisdiction. This ended
attempts to dispute the authority of Governor Beckham.
Strenuous efforts were being made to implicate his competitor,
Mr. Taylor, as accessory to the murder of Goebel. Several
persons had been arrested and put on trial for that crime,
including Caleb Powers, the Secretary of State in Governor
Taylor's fallen government, from the window of whose office it
was claimed that the cowardly shot had been fired. The trials
were scandalized by confessions of perjury and charges and
counter-charges of subornation on the part of witnesses. In
August, Powers was found guilty and sentenced to imprisonment
for life. Subsequently, Henry E. Youtsey received the same
sentence, while James Howard was condemned to death. Appeals
were taken in each case. Mr. Taylor, under indictment as an
accomplice, had left the State, and a requisition for his
rendition was refused by the Governor of Indiana, where he
sojourned. He indignantly denied all knowledge of the alleged
conspiracy to kill his competitor, but claimed that a fair
trial could not be secured to him if he was placed in the
power of his political enemies.
{288}
In October, a new election law was passed by the Legislature
and signed by the Governor. It provides that, of the three
State Election Commissioners, one is to be taken from each of
the dominant parties, upon the recommendation of the State
Central Committee, and the Clerk of the Court of Appeals, an
elective officer, is to act as umpire. The Commissioners are
to be appointed by the Governor. They are to appoint the
county boards, one from each party, with the Sheriff as
umpire. All the boards are to have only ministerial powers,
and the law gives the right of appeal in all cases of contests
to the courts except in the case of Governor and
Lieutenant-Governor, which must be tried by the Legislature,
as the constitution prescribes. The Goebel law made the boards
supreme. The new law also provides for an equitable division
of election officers.
KHAIBAR:
Inclusion in a new British Indian province.
See (in this volume)
INDIA: A. D. 1901 (FEBRUARY).
KHALIFA, The.
See (in this volume)
EGYPT: A. D. 1885-1896; 1897-1898; and 1899-1900.
KHARTUM, Destruction of.
See (in this volume)
EGYPT: A. D. 1885-1896.
KHARTUM, Gordon Memorial College.
See (in this volume)
EGYPT: A. D. 1898-1899.
KIANG-HUNG: Cession to France.
See (in this volume)
CHINA: A. D. 1894-1895 (MARCH-JULY).
KIAO-CHAU: A. D. 1897.
Seizure by Germany.
See (in this volume)
CHINA: A. D. 1897 (NOVEMBER).
KIAO-CHAU: A. D. 1899.
Cost of maintenance.
See (in this volume)
GERMANY: A. D. 1899 (JUNE).
KIEL:
Opening of the Baltic Canal.
See (in this volume)
GERMANY: A. D. 1895 (JUNE).
KIENNING, Anti-missionary riot at.
See (in this volume)
CHINA: A. D. 1899.
KIMBERLEY, Siege of.
See (in this volume)
SOUTH AFRICA (THE FIELD OF WAR):
A. D. 1899 (OCTOBER-NOVEMBER); (OCTOBER-DECEMBER);
and 1900 (JANUARY-FEBRUARY).
KINGSHIP BY DIVINE RIGHT:
German revival of the doctrine.
See (in this volume)
GERMANY: A. D. 1894-1899.
KIS, The city of.
See (in this volume)
ARCHÆOLOGICAL RESEARCH: BABYLONIA: AMERICAN EXPLORATION.
KITCHENER, Major-General Sir Herbert (afterwards Lord):
Sirdar of the Egyptian army.
Expedition to Dongola.
See (in this volume)
EGYPT: A. D. 1885-1896.
KITCHENER, Major-General Sir Herbert (afterwards Lord):
Final campaigns against the Dervishes.
See (in this volume)
EGYPT: A. D. 1897-1898.
KITCHENER, Major-General Sir Herbert (afterwards Lord):
Dealing with the French expedition at Fashoda.
See (in this volume)
EGYPT: A. D. 1898 (SEPTEMBER-NOVEMBER).
KITCHENER, Major-General Sir Herbert (afterwards Lord):
In the South African War.
See (in this volume)
SOUTH AFRICA (THE FIELD OF WAR):
A. D. 1900 (JANUARY-FEBRUARY), and after.
KLONDIKE GOLD FIELDS, The.
"Many years ago gold was known to exist on the Yukon. The
Hudson Bay Company's men tested the bars of the main river,
and found 'the color,' but not in sufficient quantity to
warrant working. The reason is, that, in the disintegration of
the rocks by the smaller streams and the action of frost and
melting snow, the metallic burden of the waters is dropped in
the causeway of the smaller tributaries; only the finest float
gold and the lighter sand and gravel being carried as far as the
Yukon itself. In 1880, after years of fruitless search on the
main stream, a body of prospectors under the protection of
Captain (now Admiral) Beardsley, United States Navy, landed at
the head of Lynn Canal, crossed the divide, and proceeded to
explore the head-waters. Not much being found at first in
Canadian territory, the prospectors descended the river to the
region near the lower end of the Upper Ramparts. In this
region lies the boundary, formed by the one hundred and
forty-first degree of west longitude from Greenwich. Here the
Yukon receives from the southwest a tributary called
Forty-Mile Creek. A few miles of the lower part of this creek,
including its mouth, are on the Canadian side of the line: the
head-waters—on which the gold is chiefly found—are, for the
most part, on the American side. In this vicinity the first
substantial deposits were discovered, many of which are still
worked. …
"The site of the new diggings—which have produced an
excitement recalling the 'Fraser River rush' of 1857—is on a
stream tributary to the Yukon from the northeast, wholly in
Canadian territory, and entering the main river about fifty
miles eastward from the boundary. Here a mining camp, called
Dawson City,—after the head of the Dominion Geological
Survey,—has been established. … The stream above referred to
has been named the Klondyke,—signifying 'reindeer': on some of
the older maps it is designated Reindeer River. It is said
however that the name should really be Throndak,—a Tinneh term
meaning 'plenty of fish.' The existence of gold on this stream
and its branches appears to have been first made known by
Indians. One of the first prospectors to locate upon it with
success was J. A. Carmich, who staked out his claim in August,
1896, and with two helpers, in a few weeks, washed out over
$14,000."
W. H. Dall,
Alaska and the New Gold-Field
(Forum, September, 1897).
KNIGHTHOOD: Victorian Order.
See (in this volume)
VICTORIAN ORDER.
KNOSSOS, Archæological excavations at.
See (in this volume)
ARCHÆOLOGICAL RESEARCH: CRETE.
KOKANG: Cession to Great Britain.
See (in this volume)
CHINA: A. D. 1897 (MAY-JUNE).
KOREA: A. D. 1895-1898.
Nominal independence of Korea.
Japanese influence supplanted by Russian.
On the 7th of January, 1893, the independence of Korea (see,
in this volume, CHINA: A. D. 1894-1895) was formally
proclaimed at Seoul. For a time, Japanese influence
prevailed, and the party favorable to it controlled affairs.
But Russian jealousy gave encouragement to the opposing
faction, headed by the queen, and the latter succeeded at
length in thwarting most of the aims of the Japanese. The
result was a revolutionary conspiracy in October, carried out
by a murderous band which broke into the palace and killed
three women, one of whom was supposed to be the queen. The
assassins were dressed in Japanese costume, and were said to
belong to the "soshi," or hireling cutthroats, of that
country; but the Japanese government indignantly repudiated
the crime, recalled and arrested its Minister, who was
suspected of complicity, and forbade its subjects to enter
Korea without special permission. Russian influence,
nevertheless, became dominant soon after; the king yielded to
it completely, and obtained riddance of opposing ministers
with Russian support. In the end, Russia and Japan came to an
agreement, nominally establishing a joint protectorate over
Korea; but practically the Japanese seemed to be fairly
shouldered out.
{289}
In the later part of 1897, the Russian Minister to Korea
brought about the dismissal of an English official, Mr. Brown,
who had been the financial adviser of the Korean government
and its commissioner of customs, putting a Russian in his
place, and secured a written agreement that none but Russians
or Koreans should fill that important post in future. The
vigorous remonstrance of the British government, however,
caused this action to be reversed.
Russia and Japan came to a new understanding in 1898, more
favorable to the interests of the latter in Korea. This was
embodied in a protocol, signed at Tokyo on the 25th of April,
1898, in terms as follows:
"I. That the Governments of Japan and Russia, recognizing the
sovereignty and complete independence of Korea, shall in no
way directly interfere with the domestic government of that
country.
II. That in order to avoid misunderstandings in the future,
whenever either Japan or Russia is applied to by Korea for
advice or assistance, neither contracting party shall take any
steps toward the appointment of military instructors or
financial advisers without previous consultation with the
other.
III. That Russia, recognizing the great progress made in
commercial and industrial enterprises by Japan in Korea, and
the great number of Japanese subjects residing in the
settlements, will do nothing to injure the development of the
commercial and industrial relations between Japan and Korea."
United States Consular Reports,
August, 1898, page 591.
A reform party had begun to manifest influence at this time,
even aspiring to representative institutions in the
government. Various progressive measures were undertaken in
1898; the gold monetary standard was adopted; American
engineers were engaged to plan roads, bridges, etc., and new
ports were opened.
KOREA: A. D. 1900.
Strategic importance of Korea to Russia and Japan.
Japanese jealousy of Russian encroachments in
Manchuria and its grounds.
"Considerable as are the material interests which Japan is
building up in Korea, it is still from the strategical point
of view that she is most deeply concerned with the future of
the Korean peninsula, which, in the hands of a great military
Power like Russia, would be a permanent threat to her safety.
And the Japanese appear to be firmly convinced that, when
once Russia is firmly seated in Northern China, she must
inevitably seek to absorb Korea. In any other hands but her
own the Korean peninsula would always be a wedge
inconveniently driven in between her older acquisitions on
the Pacific seaboard and her more recent acquisitions in the
Gulf of Chi-li, nor could she regard her strategical position
in the Far East as thoroughly secured so long as she did not
command one shore of the straits through which lies the
natural waterway between her two naval bases at Vladivostok
and at Port Arthur. … Port Arthur is situated practically on
an inland sea to which the approaches can be dominated not
only by positions already in the hands of other European
Powers, such as Wei-hai-wei and Kiaochau, but by the Korean
peninsula and islands as well as by the Japanese archipelago,
from Tsushima down to Formosa. With Port Arthur as her main
base Russia's position as a naval Power in the Far East would
be subject to natural limitations not altogether unlike those
which hamper her in the Black Sea and the Baltic.
"Considered in this light the question of Russian
aggrandisement in Northern China is so closely interwoven with
that of the future of Korea that it must necessarily wear a
much more serious aspect for Japan than for any other Power
—so serious, indeed, that not a few Japanese deem the time to
be close at hand when Japan should retort upon Russia in
precisely the same terms which the latter used in 1895 and
demand the evacuation of territories where her presence must
be a permanent threat to the independence of the Chinese
Empire and the peace of the Far East."
London Times,
Tokio Correspondence, December 27, 1900.
KOTZE, Chief-Justice:
Conflict with President Kruger of the Transvaal.
See (in this volume)
SOUTH AFRICA (THE TRANSVAAL): A. D. 1897 (JANUARY-MARCH);
and 1898 (JANUARY-FEBRUARY).
KROONSTAD:
Temporary seat of Orange Free State government.
See (in this volume)
SOUTH AFRICA (THE FIELD OF WAR): A. D. 1900 (MARCH-MAY).
KRUGER: President Stephanus Johannes Paulus.
See (in this volume)
SOUTH AFRICA (THE TRANSVAAL): A. D. 1885-1890, and after.
KUANG HSU, Emperor of China.
See (in this volume)
CHINA: A. D. 1898 (JUNE-SEPTEMBER), and after.
KUMASSI, or COOMASSIE:
Occupation by the British.
Siege and relief.
See (in this volume)
ASHANTI.
KURAM, The:
Inclusion in a new British Indian province.
See (in this volume)
INDIA: A. D. 1901 (FEBRUARY).
KURRAM VALLEY, British-Indian war with tribes in the.
See (in this volume)
INDIA: A. D. 1897-1898.
KWANGCHOW WAN, Lease of, to France.
See (in this volume)
CHINA: A. D. 1898 (APRIL-AUGUST).
KWANG-SI, Rebellion in.
See (in this volume)
CHINA: A. D. 1898 (APRIL-JULY).
{290}
L.
LABOR COLONIES: In Australia.
See (in this volume)
AUSTRALIA; RECENT EXTENSIONS OF DEMOCRACY.
LABOR CONFLICTS.
See (in this volume)
INDUSTRIAL DISTURBANCES.
LABOR LEGISLATION:
Compulsory insurance in Germany.
See (in this volume)
GERMANY: A. D. 1897-1900.
LABOR LEGISLATION:
Eight-hours day in Utah.
See (in this volume)
UTAH: A. D. 1895-1896.
LABOR LEGISLATION:
New Zealand Labor Laws.
See (in this volume))
NEW ZEALAND: A. D. 1891-1900.
LABOR LEGISLATION:
Workmen's Compensation Act in Great Britain.
See (in this volume)
ENGLAND: A. D. 1897 (MAY-JULY).
LABOR LEGISLATION:
The United States Industrial Commission.
See (in this volume)
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1898 (JUNE).
LABRADOR, Recent exploration of.
See (in this volume)
POLAR EXPLORATION, 1893-1900, 1896.
LABYRINTH, The Cretan:
Its supposed discovery.
See (in this volume)
ARCHÆOLOGICAL RESEARCH: CRETE.
LADRONE ISLANDS:
Sale by Spain to Germany.
See (in this volume)
CAROLINE AND MARIANNE ISLANDS.
LADYSMITH, Siege of.
See (in this volume)
SOUTH AFRICA (THE FIELD OF WAR):
A. D. 1899 (OCTOBER-DECEMBER);
and 1900 (JANUARY-FEBRUARY).
LAGAS, The ancient city of.
See (in this volume)
ARCHÆOLOGICAL RESEARCH; BABYLONIA: AMERICAN EXPLORATION.
LAGOS.
See (in this volume)
NIGERIA: A. D. 1899.
LA GUASIMA, Battle at.
See (in this volume)
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1898 (JUNE-JULY).
LAKE SUPERIOR CONSOLIDATED IRON MINES:
In the United States Steel Corporation.
See (in this volume)
TRUSTS: UNITED STATES: THE CLIMAX.
LAND BILL, Irish (1896).
See (in this volume)
IRELAND: A. D. 1896.
LAND SYSTEM, The New Zealand.
See (in this volume)
NEW ZEALAND; A. D. 1891-1900.
LAND TAXATION:
In Australia and New Zealand.
See (in this volume)
AUSTRALIA: RECENT EXTENSIONS OF DEMOCRACY.
LANDLORDS, Irish, New League against.
See (in this volume)
IRELAND: A. D. 1900-1901.
LATTIMER,
Conflict of striking coal miners with sheriffs' deputies at.
See (in this volume)
INDUSTRIAL DISTURBANCES: A. D. 1897.
LAURIER, Sir Wilfrid:
Prime Minister of Canada.
See (in this volume)
CANADA: A. D. 1890-1896, and after.
LAWS OF WAR.
See (in this volume)
PEACE CONFERENCE.
LAWTON, General Henry W.:
Command at Santiago de Cuba.
See (in this volume)
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1898 (JULY-AUGUST: CUBA).
LAWTON, General Henry W.:
Military operations in the Philippine Islands.
See (in this volume)
PHILIPPINE ISLANDS: A. D. 1899 (JANUARY-NOVEMBER).
LAWTON, General Henry W.:
Death.
See (in this volume) PHILIPPINE ISLANDS: A. D. 1899-1900.
LECHER, Dr.:
Twelve-hours speech.
See (in this volume)
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: A. D. 1897 (OCTOBER-DECEMBER).
LEE, General Fitzhugh:
U. S. Consul-General at Havana.
See (in this volume)
CUBA: A. D. 1897-1898 (NOVEMBER-FEBRUARY);
and (DECEMBER-MARCH).
LEE, General Fitzhugh:
Command at Havana.
Report.
See (in this volume)
CUBA: A. D. 1898-1899 (DECEMBER-OCTOBER).
LEICHAU PENINSULA, Leases in, to France.
See (in this volume)
CHINA: A. D. 1898 (APRIL-AuGUST).
LEO XIII., Pope,
See PAPACY.
LÈSE MAJESTÉ.
A hurt to Majesty.
Any offense or crime against the sovereign.
For lèse majesté in Germany,
See (in this volume)
GERMANY: A. D. 1898; and 1900 (OCTOBER).
LEX FALKENHAYN, The.
See (in this volume)
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: A. D. 1897 (OCTOBER-DECEMBER).
LEX HEINZE, The.
See (in this volume)
GERMANY: A. D. 1900 (MAY).
LEXOW INVESTIGATION, The.
See (in this volume)
NEW YORK CITY; A. D. 1894-1895.
LIAOTUNG PORTS: A. D. 1895.
Russo-Chinese Treaty relating to.
See (in this volume)
CHINA: A. D. 1895.
See, also, references from PORT ARTHUR;
TALIENWAN; and FÊNG-TIEN PENINSULA.
LIBRARIES, The gifts of Mr. Andrew Carnegie to.
Of neither the manifold items nor the stupendous total of the
gifts made by Mr. Andrew Carnegie for the founding or for the
assistance of public libraries in America and Great Britain is
there any authentic account; but a tentative record of them,
compiled mainly from the news columns of the "Library
Journal," and published, on the 17th of March, 1901, in the
"Buffalo Illustrated Express," is probably not far from
correct. It begins in 1881, with the founding of a public
library at Dunfermline, Scotland, the birthplace of Mr.
Carnegie, who then gave for it $40,000. Two years later, he is
said to have given $50,000 to a library at Inverness. In 1885
the New York Free Circulating Libraries were helped by him to
the extent of $5,000. In the following year his benefactions
were raised to their larger scale by his gift of $250,000 to
the Free Public Library of Edinburgh; besides which he gave
$28,000 to the Workmen's Library of the Keystone Bridge Works,
and smaller donations elsewhere. In 1889 he founded the
Carnegie Library at Braddock, Pennsylvania, at a cost of
$300,000.
{291}
In 1890 he contributed $325,000 to the founding of the
Carnegie Free Public Library at Allegheny, Pennsylvania, which
the city undertook to support; he replaced the Cambria
Library, which the great flood at Johnstown had destroyed,
expending $65,000 in that kindly work; gave $40,000 to a
library at Fairfield, Iowa, and $9,000 to another at Augusta,
Maine. Five thousand dollars to a library in Airdrie, $50,000
to one in Ayr, and $2,500 to a third at Jedburgh, all three in
Scotland, are the gifts recorded in 1893 and 1894.
In 1895 Mr. Carnegie seemed to be crowning his munificence by
the creation, at Pittsburg, of the great institution,
combining library, art gallery, and museum, on which, between
that year and 1899 he is said to have expended no less than
$3,860,000. In the same year he founded a small library at
Wick, in Scotland. In 1897 the donations appear to have been
small. In 1898 Dumfries, in Scotland, received for a public
library $50,000 from his open purse, and $250,000 went from it
to the creation of the Carnegie Library at Homestead,
Pennsylvania, the seat of the Carnegie works.
Hitherto the stream of Mr. Carnegie's bounty to public
libraries had been a rivulet: it now, in 1899, began to pour
like the fertilizing flood of the Nile, and that first
twelvemonth of the amazing tide was celebrated by American
librarians, at the annual meeting of their Association, as
"the Carnegie year." In reality, it but opened a series of
"Carnegie years," which have filled the period since, and may
still go on. As compiled by the "Express," supplemented by a
later record in the "Library Journal" for April, 1901, the
list of the library gifts and offers of Mr. Carnegie, from the
beginning of 1899 until March, 1901, includes $5,200,000,
tendered to the city of New York for branches to its Public
Library (see below); $1,000,000 tendered to St. Louis;
$350,000 to the city of Washington; $260,000 to Syracuse;
$125,000 each to Atlanta and Louisville; $100,000, or $150,000
(there seems to be uncertainty as to the sum) to Seattle;
$100,000 each to Richmond, Conneaut, Grand Rapids, Ottawa,
Ont., and the State College in Pennsylvania; $75,000 each to
Lincoln, Nebraska, Springfield, Illinois, Davenport, Iowa,
Tacoma, Washington, and the Bellevue Medical College, New
York; $50,000 each to San Diego, Oakland, Duluth Sedalia, East
Liverpool, Ohio, Steubenville, Sandusky, Connellsville,
McKeesport, Beaver, Beaver Falls, Tyrone, Pennsylvania,
Clarion, Oil City, Fort Worth, Dallas, Cheyenne, Dubuque,
Ottumwa, Emporia College, East Orange, York, Coal Center and
Wilkinsburg, Pennsylvania, Chattanooga, Houston, San Antonio,
Vancouver, British Columbia., Aurora, Illinois, Lewiston,
Maine, Niagara Falls, Yonkers, Canton, Ohio, Montgomery,
Alabama, Marion, Indiana, Galesburg, Illinois, Schenectady,
New York, and Hawick, Scotland; besides a great number of
lesser sums, ranging from a few hundred dollars to $40,000.
The total of the library gifts and proffers of Mr. Carnegie,
from the beginning to March, 1900, is thought to exceed
$23,000,000.
To many other educational institutions Mr. Carnegie has been
munificently generous, giving, for example, $500,000 for the
Manual Training School of Cooper Institute, New York; $250,000
to Birmingham University; $50,000 to the engineering
laboratory of Stevens Institute, Hoboken; $50,000 to the
Edinburgh Technical School, and making other gifts of like
kind.
LIBRARY,
New York Public, Astor, Lenox and Tilden Foundations.
Andrew Carnegie's offered gift.
"The New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox and Tilden
Foundations, was formed by the consolidation, on the 23d of
May, 1895, of the three corporations, 'The Trustees of the
Astor Library,' originally incorporated January 18, 1849, 'The
Trustees of the Lenox Library,' originally incorporated
January 20, 1870, and 'The Tilden Trust,' originally
incorporated March 26, 1887. … In the agreement for
consolidation it was provided that the name of the new
corporation should be 'The New York Public Library, Astor,
Lenox and Tilden Foundations'; that the number of its trustees
should be twenty-one, to be selected from the thirty-three
members of the separate boards; and that 'the said new
corporation shall establish and maintain a free public library
and reading room in the city of New York, with such branches
as may be deemed advisable, and shall continue and promote the
several objects and purposes set forth in the respective acts
of incorporation of 'The Trustees of the Astor Library,' 'The
Trustees of the Lenox Library,' and the 'Tilden Trust.' … In
December, Dr. John Shaw Billings, United States Army
(retired), was chosen Director, but he did not enter fully
upon his duties until June, 1896. …
"At the time of the consolidation the Astor library owned its
site and buildings, had an endowment fund of about $941,000,
producing an annual income of about $47,000, and contained
267,147 volumes. The Lenox library owned its site and
building, had an endowment fund of $505,500, producing an
annual income of $20,500, and contained about 86,000 volumes.
The Tilden Trust possessed Mr. Tilden's private library,
containing about 20,000 volumes, and an endowment fund
estimated at $2,000,000, making the total number of volumes in
the New York Public Library 373,147, and the total endowment
fund about $3,446,500. … The joint libraries now contain about
500,000 volumes and 175,000 pamphlets."
Immediately upon the completion of the consolidation of the
three libraries, the city of New York was asked to provide a
suitable building for the great institution contemplated, and
the ground covered by the old reservoir, on Fifth Avenue,
between Fortieth and Forty-second Streets, was suggested as an
advantageous site. "The result of this appeal, which met with
cordial public support, was that an act was passed by the
legislature and approved May 19, 1897, giving the necessary
authority to the city to issue bonds for the construction of a
library building, the result of which was that on November 10,
1897, the plans prepared by Messrs. Carrère & Hastings, of New
York City, were selected and approved, and were laid before
the Board of Estimate and Apportionment of the City of New
York on December 1, 1897. These plans were approved by the
Board of Estimate and on December 8 a contract was entered
into between the City of New York and the New York Public
Library, by which the library building to be erected upon
Bryant Park was leased to the New York Public Library. … The
sketch plans provide for a building about 350 feet in length
and about 250 feet in width from east to west, giving shelving
for about 1,500,000 volumes and seating capacity for about 800
readers in the main reading room. …
{292}
"Plans and specifications for the removal of the Forty-second
Street reservoir and laying the foundations for the new
building having been approved the contract for this work was
awarded to Mr. Eugene Lentilhon, and the work of removing was
begun on June 6th, 1899."
Handbook to the New York Public Library, 1900.
In October, 1900, it was stated in the newspapers of the city
that Mayor Van Wyck, Controller Coler, and the other members
of the Board of Estimate had come to an understanding
regarding the consolidation of all the libraries of the
Greater New York under the New York Public Library. "It was
announced officially that all the smaller libraries would be
allowed about the same amount of money for maintenance this
year as was allowed last year. A practical plan of
consolidation will be perfected, and when the matter comes up
before the Board of Estimate next year it was agreed that the
libraries would be put under one head. … It is proposed to
spend $5,000,000 on the New York Public Library now in course
of erection in Bryant Park on the site of the old reservoir.
It will be four years before the building can be completed.
Controller Coler's idea is to gradually merge the smaller
libraries so that when the new building is completed New York
will have the largest and best equipped library for sending
out books of any city in the world."
On the 12th of March, 1901, Mr. Andrew Carnegie addressed the
following letter to Dr. Billings, the Director of the New York
Public Library, making a proposal of unparalleled munificence:
"Dear Dr. Billings: Our conferences upon the needs of greater New
York for branch libraries to reach the masses of the people in
every district have convinced me of the wisdom of your plans.
Sixty-five branches strike one at first as a very large order,
but as other cities have found one necessary for every sixty
thousand or seventy thousand of population, the number is not
excessive. You estimate the average cost of these libraries
at, say, $80,000 each, being $5,200,000 for all. If New York
will furnish sites for these branches for the special benefit
of the masses of the people, as it has done for the central
library, and also agree in satisfactory form to provide for
their maintenance as built, I should esteem it a rare
privilege to be permitted to furnish the money as needed for
the buildings, say, $5,200,000. Sixty-five libraries at one
stroke probably breaks the record, but this is the day of big
operations, and New York is soon to be the biggest of cities.
Very truly yours, ANDREW CARNEGIE."
In communicating this extraordinary proposal to the New York
Public Library Board, Dr. Billings made the following
statement of the plan contemplated in the suggestions he had
made:
"In the conferences referred to by Mr. Carnegie the
suggestions which I have made have related mainly to a free
public library system for the boroughs of Manhattan and The
Bronx. I have stated that such a system should include the
great central reference library in Forty-second street and
Fifth avenue, about forty branch libraries for circulation,
small distributing centres in those public school buildings
which are adapted to such purpose, and a large travelling
library system operated from the central building. Each of the
branch libraries should contain reading rooms for from 50 to 100
adults and for from 75 to 125 children, and in these reading
rooms should be about 500 volumes of encyclopædias,
dictionaries, atlases and large and important reference books.
There should be ample telephone and delivery arrangements between
the branches and the central library.
"To establish this system would require at least five years.
The average cost of the branch libraries I estimated at from
$75,000 to $125,000, including sites and equipment. The cost
of maintaining the system when completed I estimated at
$500,000 a year. The circulation of books for home use alone
in these boroughs should amount to more than 5,000,000 of
volumes a year, and there should be at least 500,000 volumes
in the circulation department, with additions of new books and
to replace worn out books of at least 40,000 a year.
"With regard to the other boroughs of greater New York I have
made no special plans or estimates, but have said that about
twenty-five libraries would be required for them."
LIBRARY, The Temple, of ancient Nippur.
See (in this vol.)
ARCHÆOLOGICAL RESEARCH: BABYLONIA: AMERICAN EXPLORATION.
LIBRARY, The U. S. House of Representatives:
Its management under the spoils system.
See (in this volume)
CIVIL SERVICE REFORM: A. D. 1901.
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, at Washington.
The new building.
"By the act of April 15, 1886, the present site, one-quarter
of a mile south of east from the Capitol, was selected, its
acquisition by the United States provided for, and the
construction of a building authorized. During this long period
of discussion many schemes for attaining the desired end,
including a variety of plans for enlarging and occupying the
Capitol and many different sites in the city of Washington,
were considered. Several times did the legislation reach an
advanced state and fail through the pressure of more absorbing
interests. Finally the law referred to adopted sketch plans that
had been prepared by Messrs. Smithmeyer and Pelz, a firm of
Washington architects, but it fixed no limit of cost, nor did
it specify the materials of construction or character of
execution of the design other than to stipulate that the
building should be fireproof. A commission, composed of the
Secretary of the Interior, the Librarian of Congress, and the
Architect of the Capitol, was designated to conduct the
construction of the building. The site, comprising two city
squares—nearly nine acres, within the city building lines and
with the included streets—was purchased of the private owners,
the ground cleared of some seventy buildings occupying it, and
by the summer of 1888 about one-half of the foundation
footings for the building were laid. During that year,
however, Congress became dissatisfied with the progress that
had been made and the uncertainties involved in the operation
of the inadequate original law, and accordingly, on October 2,
modified it and lodged the entire control of the work, including
the preparation of new plans at a limited cost, in the hands
of Brigadier General Thomas Lincoln Casey, Chief of Engineers
of the United States Army. He immediately placed the writer in
local charge.
{293}
On March 2, 1889, Congress enacted that the building should be
erected at a total cost of $6,500,000, including previous
expenditures, according to a plan that had been prepared and
submitted by General Casey, pursuant to the previous act of
October 2, 1888. This plan was based on that adopted by the
original act, and provided a building of similar form,
dimensions, and architecture. The project embodied the
principal materials of construction and a detailed estimate of
the cost. Under these auspices operations were begun in the
spring of 1889 where the operations had left off the year
before, and the construction thence proceeded without
interruption until the building was finally completed, in the
spring of 1897. It was 470 feet in length by 340 feet in
width, having three stories and a subbasement, and fronts
west—toward the Capitol. … The foundations of the building are
of hydraulic cement concrete, 6 feet deep in ground which is a
mixture of clay and sand of very uniform character. The cellar
walls are of hard red brick; the exterior face of the
superstructure of a fine grained light blue granite from
Concord, New Hampshire; the stone of the rotunda and the
trimmings of the court walls a light blue granite from near
Woodstock, Maryland; the facing of the court walls enameled
brick from Leeds, England; and the backing and interior walls
as well as all of the vaulting of the basement and first
stories are of hard red brick. Most of the floors that are
flat ceiled are of terra cotta, and this material also forms
the covering and filling of the roofs and main dome, of which
the supporting members are of rolled steel in beams, girders,
and trusses. All of the floors are leveled up with concrete
and surfaced with tiles, terrazzo, or mosaic in the public
spaces, while in the office and working rooms they are covered
with a carpet of southern pine boards. The most important of
the strictly useful features of the building are the book
stacks, of which the design is largely original. The problem
was new, not only through the capacity to be provided but the
numerous other conditions to be met, such as light,
ventilation, adjustability to several uses, communication,
immunity from fire, cleanliness, durability, and simplicity.
It was also necessary that rapid mechanical transmission of
books between the shelving and the reading room should be
provided, coupled with a quick and reliable means of
communication, both written and oral. … The book carrier is a
pair of parallel, endless chains, running in a vertical shaft
in the middle of the stack; thence in a horizontal duct in the
cellar to a point below the central desk of the reading room,
where it turns upward and ascends vertically to the delivery
outlet at the desk. A series of equidistant book trays,
eighteen in number, are suspended between the chains. The
machine runs continuously and automatically takes on and
delivers books of the size of a quarto or less at its reading
room terminal and at each of the stack stories. The speed of
the carrier is about 100 feet per minute. The pneumatic
message tube is also convenient as a speaking tube. The great
rotunda or public reading room of the building, the main
staircase hall or foyer, the private reading rooms for the
members of Congress, the Librarian's office, the corridors
communicating with these, and the exhibition halls as well as
many portions of the exterior walls, especially the west main
pavilion, have received a good degree of artistic treatment
and embellishment, but all within strict architectural
requirements. Some forty sculptors and mural painters, about
equally divided in numbers, furnished the principal works of
art under the architects' supervision and direction. Many
appropriate quotations and names are inscribed on the walls in
the architectural tablets, friezes and panels, adding to the
general impressiveness and interest of the building. In all
ways and from all points of view the library building is
eminently instructive as an example of good design, good
appointment for its great purpose, good building and good
administration in the execution, and therefore the more
appropriate to house the nation's library. The unusual success
of the undertaking under Government auspices is almost wholly due
to the selection of a known competent, sturdy, and faithful
individual such as General Casey was, and giving him the sole
charge directly under Congress without an executive superior
liable to interfere and cause delays. The work went on
quietly, but with energy; and was completed within the
originally estimated time and well within the legal limit of
cost. The total cost of the building was $6,344,585.34—that of
the site, $585,000."
Bernard R. Green,
The Building for the Library of Congress
(Annual Report Smithsonian Institution, 1897, page 625).
LI HUNG-CHANG:
Negotiation of peace with Japan.
See (in this volume)
CHINA: A. D. 1894-1895.
LI HUNG-CHANG:
Tour in Europe and America.
See (in this volume)
CHINA: A. D. 1896.
LI HUNG-CHANG:
Charged with being in Russian pay.
See (in this volume)
CHINA: A. D. 1898 (APRIL-JULY).
LI HUNG-CHANG:
Acting Viceroy at Canton.
See (in this volume)
CHINA: A. D. 1899 (DECEMBER).
LI HUNG-CHANG:
Attempt to open negotiations with allied Powers.
See (in this volume)
CHINA: A. D. 1900 (JULY).
LI HUNG-CHANG:
Chinese Plenipotentiary to negotiate with the allied Powers.
See (in this volume)
CHINA: A. D. 1900 (AUGUST-DECEMBER).
LIKIN, The Chinese taxes called.
"Chinese tariff rates, where they exist, average about 5 per
cent ad valorem. Many articles are admitted free of duty, and
on some the rates are higher than 5 per cent, but in general
terms this is about the average rate. To this, however, there
is a material addition where the goods are intended for
interior points. The Chinese Government, while it collects a
part of its revenue from customs, relies largely upon the
provinces to supply revenue, and arbitrarily names each year
the sum which each province must supply, leaving to the
officers of that province the methods by which this is
obtained. The consequence is that each province is permitted
to collect a tax on goods entering it from the adjacent
provinces, and this custom has been extended to the
subdivision of the provinces, so that goods in transit are
frequently compelled to pay taxes every few miles. As a
consequence, the interior taxes, known as 'likin,' became not
only the terror of importers, but sometimes almost
prohibitory. So serious was this system in its effects upon
attempts to introduce foreign goods that, upon the insistence
of foreign ministers, the Chinese Government announced that an
addition of 50 per cent to the rates paid at the custom-houses
would insure passage of the goods to any point in the interior
without the exaction of likin taxes.
{294}
This was gladly accepted by foreigners desiring to do business
in the interior of China. The additional 50 per cent on duties
was paid and 'transit passes' issued for the goods in question,
purporting to authorize their free transit to any point in the
Empire. Actual experience, however, shows that these transit
passes do not always accomplish what was expected. … Every 8
or 10 miles along the principal waterways or caravan routes a
likin station is found, where a tax is levied upon some
article or articles carried through by boat, pack animal, or
wheelbarrow. At some points every article is taxed. This is
the usual rule at the gates of cities. In some cases the tax
is as little as 2 per cent ad valorem; in others, such as
silk, satin, and native opium, much more, amounting at times
to 6, 8, or even 10 per cent. Between Shanghai and Soochow, a
distance of 84 miles, there are 8 likin stations. At the first
and last stations all goods are dutiable; at the rest all
goods must be examined, and there is scarcely a single article
that does not in that distance pay at least three taxes. It is
easily seen that under such a system foreign goods cannot be
carried very far from the coast before their prices become
prohibitive for ordinary people."

United States, Bureau of Statistics, Monthly Summary,
March, 1899, pages 2188, 2231.
LINCOLN PARTY, The.
See (in this volume).
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1900 (MAY-NOVEMBER),
SILVER REPUBLICAN.
LIQUID AIR, The production of.
See (in this volume)
SCIENCE, RECENT: CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS.
LIQUOR SELLING, The regulation of.
Abolition of the Army Canteen.
See (in this volume)
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1901 (FEBRUARY).
LIQUOR SELLING:
Dispensary Laws.
See (in this volume)
SOUTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1892-1899;
NORTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1897-1899;
SOUTH DAKOTA: A. D. 1899; and
ALABAMA: A. D. 1899.
LIQUOR SELLING:
International convention respecting the
liquor traffic in Africa.
See (in this volume)
AFRICA: A. D. 1899 (JUNE).
LIQUOR SELLING:
The question in American politics.
See (in this volume)
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1896 (JUNE-NOVEMBER);
and 1900 (MAY-NOVEMBER).
LIQUOR SELLING:
The Raines Liquor Law.
See (in this volume)
NEW YORK STATE: A. D. 1896-1897.
LISCUM, Colonel Emerson H.:
Death.
See (in this volume)
CHINA: A. D. 1900 (JULY).
LITTLE ENGLAND PARTY.
A name given by its opponents to the section of the Liberal
party in Great Britain which condemns the boundless
enlargement of British annexations, protectorates and spheres
of influence in all parts of the world, and which is critical
of expansive and imperialistic wars.
LIU KUN-YI, Viceroy at Nanking:
Admirable conduct during the Chinese outbreak.
See (in this volume)
CHINA: A. D. 1900 (JUNE-DECEMBER).
LOCH, Sir H. B.:
British High Commissioner in South Africa.
See (in this volume)
SOUTH AFRICA (THE TRANSVAAL): A. D. 1894.
LOCKOUTS.
See (in this volume)
INDUSTRIAL DISTURBANCES.
LOG OF THE MAYFLOWER, The so-called.
See (in this volume)
MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1897.
LOGIA, Discovery of a fragment of the.
See (in this volume)
ARCHÆOLOGICAL RESEARCH: EGYPT; DISCOVERY OF A FRAGMENT.
LOMBOK.
See (in this volume)
DUTCH EAST INDIES.
LONDON: A. D. 1894.
The Tower Bridge.
The Tower Bridge was formally opened on the 30th of June,
eight years after the beginning of the work. Its cost was
£1,250,000.
LONDON: A. D. 1897.
Great fire.
On November 19, 1897, occurred one of the largest fires in
London since 1606. Beginning in Aldersgate, it spread over six
acres of a densely populated quarter, destroying over 100
warehouses and buildings. The loss was estimated at
£2,000,000.
LONDON: A. D. 1899.
The London Government Act.
"The London Government Act is the most important measure
passed by Lord Salisbury's Government during the year 1899;
indeed, in some respects it is the most valuable reform
carried by the Parliament which [expired in 1000]. There was
urgent need for such a measure. The machinery of London
Government was hopelessly out of gear. It was both cumbrous
and intricate; it was controlled by a network of small local
authorities whose duties were ill-defined and often clashed
with each other. There was no uniformity or harmony in the
system." The old Roman wall, "built somewhere between A. D.
350 and A. D. 370 … played a most important part in the
history of London; and, indeed, it had a large share in
creating the problems with which Mr. Balfour had to deal in
1899. Little did its unknown builder dream that his wall, so
admirable in itself, would cause us trouble fifteen centuries
after his death. But such is the fact. He was a wise man, this
nameless benefactor of the infant municipality; he took care
that the wall should be thoroughly well built; and he allowed,
as he thought, ample room for later growth. The exact position of
this wall is well known to antiquaries. Many portions of it
still remain; it included in its ambit about a square mile of
territory, with wells and trees, gardens and pastures,
bordering on the great Roman roads. For a thousand years or
more this area was sufficient for all purposes. … So far as we
now can guess, it was not till the 16th century that any
Londoner felt cramped within the wall and craved more
elbow-room. Gradually the City expanded, and at first it
incorporated its extra-mural parishes, such as Bishopsgate and
Farringdon Without. The borough of Southwark was supposed for
some purposes to be annexed to the City; it was till last year
by a fiction regarded as a ward of the City—the ward of Bridge
Without. To this extent, then, the City spread outside its
wall. But here its natural expansion stopped. … The City
proper remained a compact town, well organized and well
governed, but the suburbs were treated as mere country
villages; their only local authority was the parish vestry,
and its only officers the churchwardens and the overseers.
{295}
"This state of things obviously could not last. It soon became
impossible for the parishioners to assemble in the vestry; no
room, indeed, would hold them. First one parish and then
another applied to Parliament for an Act creating what was
called a 'select vestry,' and many representative bodies were
thus formed with diverse and very miscellaneous powers. …
Where the parishes were small, instead of a select vestry a
district board was formed, under which several small parishes
were grouped. And so when the London Government Act was passed
there were 78 parishes and extra-parochial places within the
county, but outside the City of London. … These vestries and
boards were the sanitary authorities for their respective
areas: they superintended the removal of nuisances, and the
lighting, paving, watering, and cleansing of the streets; they
also attended to some minor works of drainage, ancillary to
the main system. … In 1855, the Metropolitan Board of Works
was created to control the main drainage, to carry out
improvements, to regulate the streets and bridges, and to
maintain and manage the Fire Brigade. But its members were
elected on a vicious system—by the various vestries and
boards, and not directly by the ratepayers. … Its place was
taken [in 1888] by the London County Council. But besides
these vestries, local boards, district boards, and the
Metropolitan Board, it was deemed necessary from time to time
to create many minor authorities to meet various pressing
needs; such were the Metropolitan Asylums Board, the Thames
Conservators, the Lee Conservators, the commissioners of baths
and washhouses, the commissioners of free libraries, the
burial boards, &c., in addition to 30 boards of guardians and
the London School Board. As the population of London outgrew
its existing institutions, the defects and shortcomings were
remedied by patchwork. …
"From this position of affairs we have been rescued by two
important measures, … the Local Government Act, 1888, and the
London Government Act, 1899. … The Local Government Act of
1888 abolished the Metropolitan Board of Works: it created the
administrative county of London; it called into existence the
London County Council. The London Government Act of 1899 has
done still more for London. It has abolished some 127 local
authorities, whose place will be taken by the 28 borough
councils which must be elected on November 1. The London
County Council, the City Corporation, the Metropolitan Asylums
Board, the boards of guardians, and the London School Board
remain practically untouched. But 73 vestries, 12 district
boards, the Woolwich Local Board of Health (the last of its
race), 12 burial boards, 19 boards of library commissioners,
and 10 boards of baths and washhouses commissioners, for all
purposes of civic government, cease to exist."
London Times, October 16, 1900.
LONDON CONVENTION (British-Boer), of 1884.
See (in this volume)
SOUTH AFRICA (THE TRANSVAAL): A. D. 1884-1894.
LONGEVITY, Human:
The Nineteenth Century increase of.
See (in this vol.)
NINETEENTH CENTURY: THE LENGTHENED AVERAGE.
LOOTING, in China.
See (in this volume)
CHINA: A. D. 1900 (AUGUST 5-16, and 15-28).
"LOS VON ROM" MOVEMENT, The.
See (in this volume)
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: A. D. 1899-1900.
LOUBET, Émile: Election to the Presidency of the French Republic.
See (in this volume)
FRANCE: A. D. 1899 (FEBRUARY-JUNE).
LOUISIANA: A. D. 1898.
New State Constitution.
An educational qualification of the suffrage which applies
to all negroes and few whites.
The framing of a new constitution for the State was completed
in May. Its distinctive feature is an educational
qualification of the suffrage which does not apply to men who
were qualified in any State to vote at the beginning of the
year 1867, nor to the sons and grandsons of such men, nor to
foreigners naturalized before the 1st of January, 1898. The
amendment is as follows:
"SECTION 3.
He (the voter) shall be able to read and write, and shall
demonstrate his ability to do so when he applies for
registration, by making, under oath administered by the
registration officer or his deputy, written application
therefor, in the English language, or his mother tongue, which
application shall contain the essential facts necessary to
show that he is entitled to register and vote, and shall be
entirely written, dated, and signed by him, in the presence of
the registration officer or his deputy, without assistance or
suggestion from any person or memorandum whatever, except the
form of application hereinafter set forth: Provided, however,
That if the applicant be unable to write his application in
the English language, he shall have the right, if he so
demands, to write the same in his mother tongue from the
dictation of an interpreter; and if the applicant is unable to
write his application by reason of physical disability, the
same shall be written at his dictation by the registration
officer or his deputy, upon his oath of such disability. The
application for registration, above provided for, shall be a
copy of the following form, with the proper names, dates, and
numbers substituted for the blanks appearing therein, to wit:
"I am a citizen of the State of Louisiana. My name is --. I
was born in the State (or country) of --, parish (or county)
of --, on the -- day of --, in the year --. I am now -- years
-- months and -- days of age. I have resided in this State
since --, and am not disfranchised by any provision of the
constitution of this State.
"SECTION 4.
If he be not able to read and write, as provided by section 3
of this article, then he shall be entitled to register and
vote if he shall, at the time he offers to register, be the
bona fide owner of property assessed to him in this State at a
valuation of not less than $300 on the assessment roll of the
current year, if the roll of the current year shall then have
been completed and filed, and on which, if such property be
personal only, all taxes due shall have been paid.
"SECTION 5.
No male person who was on January 1, 1867, or at any date
prior thereto, entitled to vote under the constitution or
statute of any State of the United States, wherein he then
resided, and no son or grandson of any such person not less
than 21 years of age at the date of the adoption of this
constitution, and no male person of foreign birth, who was
naturalized prior to the first day of January, 1898, shall be
denied the right to register and vote in this State by reason
of his failure to possess the educational or property
qualifications prescribed by this constitution: Provided, He
shall have resided in this State for five years next preceding
the date at which he shall apply for registration, and shall
have registered in accordance with the terms of this article
prior to September 1, 1898; and no person shall be entitled to
register under this section after said date."
{296}
LOW, Seth:
Citizens' Union candidate for Mayor of Greater New York.
See (in this volume)
NEW YORK CITY: A. D. 1897 (SEPTEMBER-NOVEMBER.)
LOW, Seth:
American commissioner to the Peace Conference at The Hague.
See (in this volume)
PEACE CONFERENCE.
LÜBECK: A. D. 1900.
The Elbe and Trave Canal.
See (in this volume)
GERMANY: A. D. 1900 (JUNE).
LUDLOW, General William:
Military Governor of Havana.
See (in this volume)
CUBA: A. D. 1898-1899 (DECEMBER-OCTOBER).
LUEGER, Dr.:
Anti-Semitic agitation in Vienna.
See (in this volume)
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: A. D. 1895-1896.
LUXEMBOURG: A. D. 1899 (May-July).
Representation in the Peace Conference at The Hague.
See (in this volume)
PEACE CONFERENCE.
LUZON.
See (in this volume)
PHILIPPINE ISLANDS.
LYNCH LAW, in the United States.
Statistics, compiled by the "Chicago Tribune," of the cases of
mob-murder, called "lynchings," which were reported in the
newspapers as having occurred in the United States during the
year 1899, showed a total of 107, being 20 less than a similar
record for 1898 had shown. Of the reported cases, 3 were in
Kansas, 1 in Pennsylvania, and 103 in Southern States. Georgia
led in the latter list, being credited with 20 executions
under lynch law. Mississippi followed with 14, Louisiana with
13, Arkansas with 11, and other States of the South with
lesser numbers. Of the victims (mostly colored) 44 were
accused of murder; 11 of complicity in murder; 11 with rape or
attempted rape; 1 with rape and murder.
The "Political Science Quarterly," in its Record of Political
Events between November 11, 1897, and May 10, 1898, cites 31
incidents of lynching, exclusive of a mob-murder committed at
Lake City, South Carolina, where a negro postmaster and one of
his children were killed, his wife and three other children
wounded, and their house burned down. Of these incidents, 23
were reported from the South, the victims in every case being
black; 8 were from northwestern States, the victims being
white.
For 1897, the "Buffalo Express" compiled statistics of
reported lynchings from its news columns, which showed 38
between January 1 and June 8, and 77 during the remainder of
the year, making a total of 115.
M.
MACARTHUR, General:
Military operations in the Philippine Islands.
See (in this volume)
PHILIPPINE ISLANDS: A. D. 1899 (JANUARY-NOVEMBER).
MACDONALD, Sir Claude:
British Minister at Peking.
See (in this volume)
CHINA: A. D. 1898 (FEBRUARY), and after.
MACEDONIA, Impending revolt in.
See (in this volume)
TURKEY: A. D. 1899-1901; and
BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES.
MACEO, Antonio:
Death of the Cuban leader.
See (in this volume)
CUBA: A. D. 1896-1897.
MACHADADORP:
Temporary seat of Transvaal government.
See (in this volume)
SOUTH AFRICA (THE FIELD OF WAR): A. D. 1900 (MAY-JUNE).
MACKENZIE, The district of.
See (in this volume)
CANADA: A. D. 1895.
MCKINLEY, William:
Election and reelection to the Presidency of the United States.
See (in this volume)
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1896 (JUNE-NOVEMBER);
and 1900 (MAY-NOVEMBER).
MCKINLEY, William:
Administration.
See (in this volume)
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1897 (MARCH), and after.
MCKINLEY, William:
Message on the condition of Cuba in 1897.
See (in this volume)
CUBA: A. D. 1896-1897.
MCKINLEY, William:
Message on the destruction of the battleship Maine.
See (in this volume)
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1898 (FEBRUARY-MARCH).
MCKINLEY, William:
Message asking for power to intervene in Cuba.
See (in this volume)
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1898 (MARCH-APRIL).
MCKINLEY, William:
Message announcing state of war with Spain.
See (in this volume)
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1898 (APRIL).
MCKINLEY, William:
Civil Service order in 1899.
See (in this volume)
CIVIL SERVICE REFORM: A. D. 1899.
MCKINLEY, William:
Negotiation of peace with Spain.
Instructions to and correspondence with Commissioners at Paris.
See (in this volume)
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1898 (JULY-DECEMBER).
MCKINLEY, William:
Instructions to the military commander and
to the two commissions in the Philippines.
See (in this volume)
PHILIPPINE ISLANDS:
A. D. 1898-1899 (DECEMBER-JANUARY);
1899 (JANUARY); and 1900 (APRIL).
MADAGASCAR.
The island of Madagascar, which stretches through more than
thirteen degrees of latitude, in close neighborhood to the
eastern African coast, opposite Mozambique, though often
called "the great African island," is more Malayan than
African in its population. The dominant tribe is the Hova. For
more than a century the French have been covetous of the
island, and since 1883, when they opened a war with its Hova
rulers, they have pursued a steady policy toward the end of
making it their own. The result of the war of 1886 was a
treaty under which the French claimed a certain protectorate
or control of Malagasy foreign relations,—a claim concerning
which there remained much dispute. In 1890 the British
government recognized the French protectorate, but the native
government continued steadily to refuse acknowledgment that
the treaty had given any such rights.
{297}
MADAGASCAR:
Subjugation of the island by the French.
Anti-foreign and anti-Christian risings.
Revival of idolatry.
Final possession of the island by France proclaimed.
Submissive Declaration of the Queen.
In 1894 the French government took decisive measures looking
toward the subjugation of the island, and, early in 1895, a
strong expedition under General Duchesne was landed on the
coast. The Malagasy were much divided among themselves, and
they were poorly prepared for war. They made feeble resistance
to the invaders; but the latter had a difficult and costly
campaign, notwithstanding, on account of the nature of the
country and the absence of roads, which they were obliged to
construct as they advanced. They are said to have lost only 20
men killed in action, but 6,000 by disease. They reached
Antananarivo, the Hova capital, at the end of September.
"Immediately on the arrival of General Duchesne a treaty was
signed by the Malagasy authorities, by which the whole power
of the country was ceded to the French. The queen remained in
her place, and the Hova Prime Minister was also allowed to be
nominally at the head of affairs. Part of this arrangement was
found impracticable after a short time; the Prime Minister had
enjoyed unlimited power for too long a period to accept a
subordinate position, and General Duchesne was forced to
remove him. According]y, he was taken to a house of his own at
a short distance from the capital, where he was kept under
surveillance for two or three months, but as he was still
supposed to be plotting he was deported to Algiers, in which
country he died after a very short exile.
"It seemed at first as if the change of masters in the island
was to be accomplished without any serious disturbance. … In
the early part of November (1895), however, this satisfactory
state of affairs was rudely interrupted. A paltry quarrel
between two clans about a piece of ground, which each claimed,
gradually developed into a serious rising. The two parties
came to an understanding by agreeing to make an attack upon
the Europeans. As soon as General Duchesne was informed of
what had been happening to the south-west of the capital, he
sent a column … with orders to punish the insurgents and to
pacify the district. … The resistance on the part of the
natives was vigorous, and for a time well sustained. …
Discipline and Lebel rifles, however, were more than a match
for all their efforts, and after a loss of about 150 men they
desisted. … One distressing feature in the insurrection was
the revival of idolatry, which was thought to be extinct in
Imerina, but which evidently has been scotched and not killed.
Almost the first move on the part of the rebels had been to
reinstate a local idol called Ravololona, and the performance
of certain acts of worship in the presence of the idol was
considered the mark of a good patriot. Naturally under these
circumstances the teachers and the more prominent Christians
in the various churches and chapels were objects of dislike
and hatred, and in the disaffected district these men with
their wives and families had to fly for their lives. It is
useless to shut one's eyes to facts; a considerable number of
those who were held in esteem by the missionaries failed to
stand the test of persecution, and if not guilty of actually
worshipping idols were actively in league with those who did
so. … After the suppression of this first outbreak matters
remained quiet in Imerina for some months. …
"The next serious event in the island was an outbreak of a
different character. With the exception of the Hova, few if
any of the tribes were thought to be opposed to French rule. …
The Hova were as much hated as they were feared, and, from
whatever quarter it might come, release from their rule would
be welcome. The arrival of the French was the long-wished-for
moment; but news spreads slow]y in Madagascar, and though the
Hova power came to an end at the beginning of October, it was
not realised on the coast until the new year [1896]. When,
however, it was known that the French were masters of the
country the explosion came. The two large tribes of the
Betsimisaraka and the Taimoro on the east rose against the
Hova, and ruthlessly killed them wherever they could catch
them. … The buildings used as churches and schools were also
burnt, for, as the greater part of the teachers came from
Imerina, religion and education were associated with the Hova.
In one or two instances Europeans were murdered, but only when
they were mixed up with the Hova."
F. A. Gregory,
The French in Madagascar
(Nineteenth Century, January, 1897).
Formal possession of the island was now proclaimed, and, on
the 18th of January, 1896, the submissive queen signed the
following "Declaration": "Her Majesty the Queen of Madagascar,
having been made acquainted with the Proclamation taking
possession of the Island of Madagascar by the French
Government, declares her acceptance of the following
conditions:
"ARTICLE I.
The Government of the French Republic shall be represented at
the Court of Her Majesty the Queen of Madagascar by a
Resident-General.
"ARTICLE II.
The Government of the French Republic shall represent
Madagascar in all relations with foreign Powers. The
Resident-General shall be intrusted with the conduct of
relations with the Agents of foreign Powers; and all questions
affecting foreigners in Madagascar shall be dealt with through
him. The French Diplomatic and Consular Agents abroad shall be
charged with the protection of Malagasy subjects and
interests.
"ARTICLE III.
The Government of the French Republic reserve to themselves
the right of maintaining in Madagascar the armed forces
necessary for the exercise of their authority.
"ARTICLE. IV.
The Resident-General shall control the internal administration
of the island. Her Majesty the Queen of Madagascar undertakes
to introduce such reforms as the French Government shall deem
expedient for the economic development of the island, and for
the advancement of civilization.
"ARTICLE. V.
The Government of Her Majesty the Queen of Madagascar
undertake to contract no loan without the authorization of the
Government of the French Republic.
(Signed) RANAVALOMANJAKA, Mpanjakany Madagascar."
On the 11th of February the following "Notification" was
officially communicated to all the Powers: "In consequence of
difficulties which have arisen in Madagascar, the Government
of the Republic, in the exercise of their Protectorate, have
been obliged to intervene by force of arms in order to make
their rights respected, and to obtain guarantees for the
future. They have thus been obliged to occupy the island with
their troops, and to take final possession thereof."
Great Britain, Parliamentary Publications
(Papers by Command: Africa, No.8, 1897).
{298}
About this time, "M. Laroche, the first Resident-General,
arrived at the capital and began to organise the government of
the country. A new Prime Minister was appointed, in whose name
laws might be issued, for it had been settled that the
administration should be indirect, that is to say conducted
through the medium of the natives. A considerable number of
regulations were promulgated, affecting the development of the
industries of the country, the granting of concessions, and
the education of the natives. Most of these were much too
elaborate to be useful, and up to the present time nearly all
of them have remained a dead letter. Some may be useful when
the insurrection has been quelled, when the country is such as
to invite capitalists, and when schools have been
re-established. In March there were again signs of trouble,
though at first these were faint and perhaps too far off to
attract the serious attention of the authorities. …
"A petty disturbance in the beginning, fomented for private
purposes and fostered by an appeal to patriotic feeling, has
developed into a formidable insurrection. I say formidable,
but I do not mean to give the idea that the insurrection is
formidable from a military point of view. … But from
industrial, educational, and religious points of view, the
rebellion has been a complete success, and however soon it may
be suppressed, the progress of the country in some parts has
been thrown back for years, a large tract reduced to
desolation, and the inhabitants to little better than savages.
This destruction has been effected in five months, for,
beginning in May, it has spread over the whole of Avaradrano,
Vonizongo, part of Imarovatana, and Vakin Ankaratoa, four out
of the six divisions of Imerina. … To mark the, anti-European
character of the rising, the churches were burnt without
distinction, and in some places leper hospitals were
destroyed, and their unhappy inmates rendered houseless. The
English and Norwegian missions have suffered the most
severely. It is impossible to estimate correctly the number of
churches and chapels that have been burnt, but at the lowest
computation it must amount to 600. … As in the West,
idol-worship was practised, the idol in this case being
Ramahavaly, the war-god or goddess; the pillaging of houses
and property became almost universal, and soon it came to pass
that no one was safe unless he either joined the insurgents or
paid them to leave him unmolested. …
"The greatest move in the organisation of the country is the
abolition of slavery throughout the island. This was
proclaimed in the official gazette issued on the 27th of
September [1896] by decree of the Resident-General. It was
wholly unexpected at the time, though there had been rumours
two or three months previously to the effect that the step was
contemplated, but would be effected gradually. Naturally, it
fell upon the Hova like a clap of thunder, and, as the law was
published on a Sunday, some worthy folk found themselves, on
their return from service, without a slave to cook the dinner.
… It would have been better to have proceeded more slowly to
the desired end; to have made an children born after a fixed
day free; and to have made the redemption of the rest, either
by themselves or by others, cheap and easy. However, it has
been decided otherwise, and certainly the state of the country
is such as to justify any measure, for, when everything is in
a state of upheaval the exact amount of pressure is of small
importance. In addition to this it must be remembered that in
consequence of the outbreak Madagascar has been declared a
French colony, and that this carries with it the abolition of
the status of slavery. While, then, the greater number of
Europeans who know Madagascar would have preferred that
slavery should have been abolished by degrees, few would be
prepared to say that it was altogether a mistake."
F. A. Gregory,
The French in Madagascar
(Nineteenth Century, January, 1897).
An Act for the annexation of Madagascar was passed by the
French Chamber and Senate in the early summer of 1896, with a
declaration for the immediate abolition of slavery. In the
following year Queen Ranavalomanjaka was banished to the
French Island of Reunion, and in 1899 she was removed to a
more distant and more cruel exile in Algiers.
MAFEKING, Siege of.
See (in this volume)
SOUTH AFRICA (THE FIELD OF WAR):
A. D. 1899 (OCTOBER-NOVEMBER); and 1900 (MARCH-MAY).
MAFIA, Exposure in Italy of the.
See (in this volume)
ITALY: A. D. 1900 (JANUARY).
MAHAN, Captain Alfred T.:
American Commissioner to the Peace Conference at The Hague.
See (in this volume)
PEACE CONFERENCE.
MAHDI, The death of the.
See (in this volume)
EGYPT: A. D. 1885-1896.
MAINE, The battle-ship:
Destruction in Havana harbor.
See (in this volume)
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1898 (FEBRUARY-MARCH).
MAJESFONTEIN, Battle of.
See (in this volume)
SOUTH AFRICA (THE FIELD OF WAR):
A. D. 1899 (OCTOBER-DECEMBER).
MALAGASY, The.
See (in this volume)
MADAGASCAR.
MALAKAND, Attack by Swat tribes on.
See (in this volume)
INDIA: A. D. 1897-1898.
MALARIA, Discovery of the secret of.
See (in this volume)
SCIENCE, RECENT: MEDICAL AND SURGICAL.
MALAYAN RACE.
See (in this volume)
PHILIPPINE ISLANDS: THE NATIVE INHABITANTS.
MALOLOS:
The seat of Aguinaldo's government in the Philippines.
See (in this volume)
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1898 (JULY-SEPTEMBER).
MANCHESTER SHIP CANAL.
See (in this volume)
CANAL, MANCHESTER SHIP.
MANCHURIA: A. D. 1895-1900.
Trans-Siberian Railway.
Russo-Chinese Treaty.
See (in this volume)
CHINA: A. D. 1895; and
RUSSIA IN ASIA: A. D. 1891-1900.
{299}
MANCHURIA: A. D. 1900-1901.
Chinese Boxer attack on the Russians and
savage Russian retaliation.
Russian occupation of Niu-chwang.
Russo-Chinese negotiations concerning the province.
Distrust of Russian designs.
The Boxer outbreak in and around Peking, in the early summer
(see, in this volume, CHINA: A. D. 1900-MAY-JUNE, and after),
was followed, in July, by an attack on the Russians in
Manchuria, along the line of the Manchurian branch of their
Trans-Siberian Railway (see, in this volume, RUSSIA IN ASIA),
and on the Amur. The retaliation of the Russians appears to
have been simply ferocious. Professor G. Frederick Wright, who
was travelling in Manchuria at the time, gives a sickening
account of what he saw on the Amur, above Blagovestchensk, in
a letter written, August 6, from Stretensk, Siberia, to "The
Nation," of New York. The Chinese fort at Aygun, on the
Manchurian side of the Amur, began, without warning, on the
14th of July, he writes, "to fire upon passing steamboats,
and, on the 15th, fire was opened upon Blagovestchensk, and
some Russian villages were burned opposite the fort. The
actual injury inflicted by the Chinese was slight; but the
terror caused by it was indescribable, and it drove the
Cossacks into a frenzy of rage. The peaceable Chinese, to the
number of 3,000 or 4,000, in the city were expelled in great
haste, and, being forced upon rafts entirely inadequate, were
most of them drowned in attempting to cross the river. The
stream was fairly black with their bodies. Three days after,
we counted hundreds of them in the water. In our ride through
the country to reach the city on Thursday, the 19th, we saw as
many as thirty villages and hamlets of the Chinese in flames.
One of them was a city of 8,000 or 10,000 inhabitants. We
estimated that we saw the dwellings of 20,000 peaceable
Chinese in flames that awful day, while parties of Cossacks
were scouring the fields to find Chinese, and shooting them
down at sight. What became of the women and children no one
knew; but there was apparently no way for them to escape to a
place of safety. On our way up the river for 500 miles above
the city, every Chinese hamlet was a charred mass of ruins.
The large village of Motcha was still smoking, and we were
told that 4,000 Chinese had been killed. We do not mention
these facts to excite prejudice against the Russian
authorities or against the Cossacks. This work of devastation
has not been ordered by those high in authority. It is rather
the result of mob violence such as instigates the promoters of
lynch law in the Southern States, or, more nearly, such as has
from time immemorial animated the pioneers in America against the
Indians. The wholesale destruction, both of property and of
life, was thought to be a military necessity. The wives and
children of the Cossacks were in terror."
Russian troops were poured into Manchuria in vast numbers, and
however much or little there may have been of the Boxer
movement, it was crushed with merciless rigor. A letter from
the Manchurian treaty port of Niu-chwang, on the Liao-tung
Gulf, written August 13, to the "London Times," describes the
Russian occupation of that town and region, in the previous
week. After some 1,500 or 2,000 Chinese soldiers and
civilians, in flight from the town, had been intercepted and
killed, "the Russian general," says the writer, "was about to
order a general assault on the town when the foreign residents
interceded, as there were no longer any soldiers or 'Boxers'
left. He declared his intention was to kill all, as it was
impossible to distinguish between soldiers, 'Boxers' and
civilians. Some foreigners then went down into the city and
brought up the principal merchants, who were given until 10 a.
m. to deliver up all the guns in the town. This, of course,
they could not and did not do, so some foreign residents
offered to enter the city with the Russian soldiers, and
guaranteed peaceful occupation. This offer was accepted, and
the town was spared enormous loss of life, though there was a
certain amount of looting, and a few people were bayoneted in
the outlying houses. Outside the walls men, women, and
children were killed, and from all sides came reliable reports
of violation of women. There is no possible doubt about the
truth of these reports. The Russians are carrying out a policy
of destruction of property and extermination of the people.
Kai-chau, the district city, 24 miles south of this port, and
nearly all the villages have been burnt and the inhabitants
killed. The soldiers, both infantry and Cossacks, have been
allowed to do what they like for some days."
The same correspondent goes on to say: "The Russians hoisted
their naval flag over the Custom-house at 7.30 p. m. on August
4. Neither in the attack and bombardment of the town nor in
hoisting their flag did they consult any of the foreign
Consuls or the commanders of the two Japanese gunboats in
port. Admiral Alexeieff arrived on the 5th and issued a
circular announcing the occupation of the treaty port by
Russian military forces. … What the other Powers will say to
the seizure of a treaty port and hoisting of only one flag
remains to be seen." The "one flag" seems to have been still
waving over Niu-chwang as late as the 15th of February, 1901,
since a member in the British House of Commons, on that day,
arraigning his government for want of vigor in China, said
that "though British people traded with Niu-chwang to the
extent of three millions sterling a year, the port was now
under the civil and military administration of Russia alone.
He should like to know what undertaking his Majesty's
Government had obtained that Russia would speedily evacuate
Niu-chwang, and that the administration of the port would
revert to the hands of the Chinese Government.
A few days later, the Under Secretary of State for Foreign
Affairs, Viscount Cranborne, said in reply to this statement:
"We made proper inquiry from our representative, and he
assured us that any agreement which exists between Russia and
China in respect to Manchuria is in the nature of a 'modus
vivendi,' consisting merely in the simultaneous presence of
the Russian and Chinese forces in Manchuria, and in order to
prevent disturbances on their frontier. He assured us that the
occupation of the railway is of a purely temporary character,
and that, although a guarantee is expected by the Russian
Government that upon their withdrawal the disturbances shall
not breakout again, yet that guarantee will not take the form
of an acquisition of territory or of a virtual or actual
protectorate in Manchuria. … In respect to Niu-chwang we have
received assurances at least equal to those which have been
given us in respect to the province of South Manchuria. We
understand the Russians are prepared to restore Niu-chwang at
the end of their occupation precisely to its former
condition."
{300}
For the time being, however, the Russians seem to have
established in practice a very real protectorate over the
province of Fêng-tien, in Southern Manchuria, by an agreement
between the Russian governor of the territory leased from
China in the Liao-tung peninsula and the Chinese Tartar
general of Fêng-tien, signed on the 11th of November, 1900.
The general terms of this agreement were reported late in
December, and excited much uneasiness as to Russian designs.
The full text was communicated to the "London Times," in the
February following, by its Peking correspondent, with the
information that the Tartar general who signed it, in
transmitting a copy to Li Hung-chang, "states that grief
pierces his very soul, but what alternative has he?" The
agreement required the Tartar general to disband his troops
and disarm them, on account of the rebellions which had
occurred among them; to deliver up all munitions of war and
dismantle all forts and defences, and to give full information
of all important measures taken by him to a Russian resident
who should be stationed at Mukden, with "general powers of
control."
Late in February, 1901, it was ascertained that the Russian
Minister at Peking, M. de Giers, was negotiating a more
definite and binding convention relative to Manchuria with the
Chinese imperial government, as represented by Li Hung-chang;
and, on the 7th of March, the Peking correspondent of the
"London Times" telegraphed to that journal what claimed to be
a translation of the full text of the treaty, as follows:
"I. The Emperor of Russia, being desirous to manifest his
friendly feelings, agrees to restore Manchuria completely to
China without keeping in mind the fact of the recent warfare
in that province. The Chinese administration shall be restored
in all respects to the 'status quo ante.'
"II. China granted to the railway company, as stipulated in
Article VI. of the Eastern China Railway Concession, the right
of guarding the line with troops, but the country being still
in disorder and the number of troops being insufficient, it
has been found necessary to station a body of troops in the
province, which will be withdrawn as soon as peace and order
are restored and the provisions of the last four articles of
the present convention are carried out.
"III. In case of emergency, the Russian troops stationed in
the province shall render all possible assistance to China to
suppress any disturbances.
"IV. The recent attacks against Russia having been conducted
principally by regular troops, China agrees not to organize
any army before the completion of the railway and the opening
thereof for traffic. When China subsequently organizes her
military forces, the number of troops shall be fixed in
consultation with Russia. The importation of arms and
ammunition into Manchuria is prohibited.
"V. In order to safeguard the province, China shall
immediately dismiss such Governors-General and high local
officials as have committed improper acts in connexion with
foreign relations against which Russia would protest. China
can organize infantry and cavalry in Manchuria for police
purposes, but the number shall be fixed in consultation with
Russia. Artillery should be excluded, and arms given to no
subjects of any other Power employed in connexion with the
exercise of functions.
"VI. China, as previously agreed, shall not employ the
subjects of any other Power for training her naval and
military forces in the northern provinces.
"VII. In order to maintain peace and order, the local
authorities, residing in the vicinity of the neutral zone
provided for by the fifth article of the convention relating
to the lease of the territory of Leao-tong, shall establish
special regulations suitable to the circumstances, and shall
relinquish the administrative autonomy of Kin-chau, which is
reserved to China by Article IV. of the special convention.
"VIII. China shall not grant, without the consent of Russia,
to any other Power or their subjects advantages relative to
mines, railways, or other matters in the Russo-Chinese
Frontier provinces—namely, Manchuria, Mongolia, Kashgar,
Yarkand, Khotan, and Turkestan; neither shall she construct
her own railways in those provinces without the consent of
Russia. Leases of land outside Niu-chwang shall not be granted
to the subjects of any other Power.
"IX. China being under obligations to pay the war expenses of
Russia and the claims of the various other Powers, the amount
of Russia's indemnity, and the terms of payment and the
security for it, shall be adjusted conjointly with the other
Powers.
"X. Indemnities shall be paid and compensation granted for the
destruction of railway property and to the employés of the
company. Losses accruing from delay in the work shall be
adjusted between China and the railway company.
"XI. When the indemnities for the various damages shall have
been agreed upon between China and the company the whole or
part of the amount of such indemnities should be met by
advantages other than pecuniary compensation—that is, either
by revision of the existing agreement relating to the railway
or by the grant of new advantages.
"XII. China shall, as previously agreed, grant to Russia a
concession for the construction of a railway from the main or
branch line of the Manchuria Railway towards Peking and to the
Great Wall."
Notwithstanding the very positive agreement contained in the
first article of this treaty, that the Emperor of Russia will
"restore Manchuria completely to China," the publication of
its terms excited new and greater distrust of the designs and
the action of the Muscovite Power. It was seen that Chinese
authority, for the time being, would be pushed out of
Manchuria so completely, and that of Russia would be
established so firmly, that any future restoration of the
former was improbable, to say the least. Moreover, the entire
exclusion of all people except Russians from any share in the
development of Manchurian resources was exceedingly offensive
to the money-making desires with which the whole western world
is looking toward the great decaying empire of the East. That
such an exclusion should extend beyond Manchuria, even to
Mongolia, Kashgar, Yarkand, Khotan and Turkestan, as set forth
in the above report of the pending treaty, was an idea at
which capitalistic circles in Europe and America stood aghast.
{301}
Very soon there was denial that the exclusiveness asked for by
the modest Russian went farther than the bounds of Manchuria;
but, even as thus limited, it roused strenuous protest from
the Press of the western world, if not from the governments.
What diplomatic action was taken by the Powers in general is
not known at the time of this writing; but the United States
remonstrated to China (see CHINA: A. D. 1901, MARCH-APRIL,),
and, as stated by the British Foreign Minister, Lord
Lansdowne, in Parliament, on the 28th of March, the British
and German governments did the same. The Chinese government
was nerved accordingly to resist the Russian demands, though
Li Hung-chang appears to have urged submission to them. The
contemplated treaty was not signed.
Before and after this determination the Russian government
maintained that it had no ulterior designs in the arrangement
it sought with China. Lord Lansdowne, in the speech to
Parliament referred to above, spoke as follows of the
assurances he had received from Count Lamsdorff, the Russian
Foreign Minister: "He told us that it was the object of the
Russian Government 'to arrange with the local civil
authorities the terms of a "modus vivendi" between them for
the duration of the simultaneous presence of Russian and
Chinese authorities in Southern Manchuria, the object being to
prevent the recurrence of disturbances in the vicinity of the
Russian frontier and to protect the railway from the Russian
frontier to Port Arthur.' And he told us that his government
had 'no intention of seeking this guarantee in any acquisition
of territory or of an actual or virtual protectorate over
Manchuria.'"
Similar assurances are reported to have been given to the
American government, on the 4th of April; and, for the time
being at least, the Manchurian question has ceased to be
disturbing to the "Concert of the Powers."
MANCHURIA AND MONGOLIA.
The following information concerning Manchuria and Mongolia is
taken from notes made in 1897 by Colonel Browne, Military
Attache to the British Legation at Peking: "The area of
Manchuria is computed to contain no less than 362,310 square
miles, or just three times as large as that of Great Britain
and Ireland. It is divided into three provinces, of which the
most southerly, Feng-tien or Shên-king, with its capital at
Mukden, has for several hundred years formed an integral part
of the Chinese Empire, and is consequently more opened up and
more densely inhabited than the two northern provinces, which
were regarded until the beginning of this century as waste
lands, outside the pale of civilization, fit only for the
transportation of criminals. Though the old palisades have
long disappeared, their trace still marks the boundary between
Manchuria and Mongolia, and the gateways on the main roads are
still used as posts for the collection of transit dues. These
places may be recognized by the termination 'mên' (a gate),
such as Fa-k'u-mên, Fa-ta-ha-mên. The province of Kirin and
its capital bear the same name, while the huge northern
province of Hei-lung-chiang has its seat of government at
Tsi-tsi-har. It is generally said that the Governor of
Fêng-tien (Mukden) occupies somewhat the position, as regards
the two northern provinces, as a viceroy in China holds
towards the provinces comprised in his Viceroyalty, but this
does not appear to be so, except in his capacity as High
Commissioner for the defence of the three Manchurian
provinces. The Governors of the three provinces are styled in
the official Gazette by the same title of Military Governor of
the Provincial Capital and Tartar General of the Province, but
the Governor of Fêng-tien holds the more honourable post,
because Mukden is an Imperial city, within its walls is an
Imperial Palace, without its walls the tombs of the founders
of the Manchu dynasty. It has also, in miniature, Boards
similar to those at the capital for regulating ceremonies,
punishments, and civil appointments; in short, all the
theoretical paraphernalia to carry on the government of the
country, should the Emperor visit this quarter of his
dominions. … The great grain and bean producing area in the
three provinces is contained in a strip of country, extending
from the Treaty Port of Newchwang to 30 miles north of
Pei-tuan-lin-tzu. To the west of this belt of arable are the
Mongolian steppes, all in grass, but fading away into sand as
they merge in the great desert of Gobi; to the east is a hilly
or mountainous region, in which the only large cultivated area
is that watered by the River Hwei-fa, an affluent of the Upper
Sungari; elsewhere the cultivated areas are small, such as
those at Mergen, Tsi-tsi-har, the Valley of the Yen, and at
Sansing, Ninguta, Hun-chun, and Omoso. Exclusive of patches of
cultivation in remote districts and valleys, the great
cultivated area may be estimated to amount to 16,000 square
miles, or about one twenty-fourth of the total area of the
country. To what extent under improved communications,
drainage, and more favourable conditions generally, the
cultivated area is capable of expansion, it is difficult to
say. … The population of Manchuria has been variously
estimated from a few millions by the Chinese to as much as
25,000,000 by Europeans. A Russian engineer, who has travelled
all over the country, estimates it as between 10,000,000 and
15,000,000. … Before I received these figures I had arrived at
a somewhat similar result by taking the cultivated area at 700
per square mile which gives a population of 11,250,000, and
assuming 2,500,000 scattered throughout the more remote
districts, or a population in all of about 14,000,000. What
proportion of these are Manchus is also a vexed question to
which no definite answer can be given. Certainly the Manchus
are in the minority, for though there are several towns almost
wholly Chinese, I know of no town in which it is not
acknowledged that the Chinese form more than half the
population. The Manchus are nearly all concentrated in towns;
there are Manchu villages, but they are small, possibly their
numbers amount to between 2,000,000 and 3,000,000, or about 20
per cent. of the population. The chief appointments in
Manchuria are, without exception, held by Manchus, the
descendants of the conquerors of China. In four centuries of

ease and sloth they have lost the wild courage, the spirit of
adventure that inspired them to overrun China, and the
hardihood and skill at arms that brought success to their
venture. But if they have lost the warlike instincts of their
savage ancestors, they have retained all their pride, their
ignorance, their cruelty, and their superstition. All these
qualities a Manchu possesses far in excess of the liberal
share that nature has bestowed on the Chinese.
{302}
It is true that skill at arms still nominally opens the door
to military preferment, but such arms and such skill! Shooting
arrows from a moderately strung bow when cantering on a pony
is a test which displays neither skill, strength, nor
endurance. Even according to Chinese ideas they are ignorant.
… As regards their privileges, the Manchus pay no land tax;
but in so far as I have been able to ascertain, the opinion
generally held, that they are all pensioned by Government, is
erroneous. … But though the mass of the Manchus receive no
pension, nearly all are in pay as hangers-on at Yamêns,
body-guard to officials, soldiers, care-takers at the Palace
or Imperial tombs, and similar posts. The emoluments are
small, just sufficient to enable the man to support his family
without working, or making his way in the world as an ordinary
Chinese must do. Formerly the Manchus did not intermarry with
Chinese women, but at the present time this custom is
frequently broken through, though of course no Chinese would
be permitted to marry a Manchu woman. The Manchus, especially
the dependents, hangers-on, and soldiers, are great opium
smokers, and a very worthless class; probably intermarriage
with the Chinese will prevent the extinction of the race,
which, were the present dynasty to fall, would be speedily
absorbed, for, without being propped up with State assistance,
it could not on its merits hold the position it does at
present. As regards the Chinese, few of the rich merchants
make Manchuria their home. They come to the country for a
definite number of years, and the same applies to their
agents, managers, and staff generally, who leave their
families in China. The settlers, on the contrary, have made
the country their home. They are a fine, healthy, and vigorous
race. Driven from China by poverty or famine, they regard
Manchuria as a land flowing with milk and honey. … Whether it
be the rigour of the climate which softens their manners, or
the absence of the Chinese Mandarin, or living under the sway
of an alien race which humbles their pride, or a combination
of all these elements, it is difficult to say, but the people
are far less hostile to the foreigner than those in China
proper. …
"Mongolia extends for 1,500 miles along the northern frontier
of China, and as its eastern border is coterminous with
Manchuria, a few words regarding the Mongols may not be out of
place in these notes. The race is said to come with the Manchus
from a common Tartar stock, but, except in colour and
features, there is little resemblance between the two races.
The Mongol is essentially a nomad, hating towns and houses. He
prefers to wander about the steppes, pitching his 'yourt,' or
felt tent, wherever water and pasture are for the time most
plentiful. As the nature of the country they inhabit prohibits
agriculture, the art is unknown among his people, who are
entirely engaged in tending their flocks and herds, ponies,
and camels. They are mere children in the hands of the
Chinese, who can outwit them as easily as a member of the
'confidence trick' fraternity outwits a rustic from the
shires. … A small portion of their territory is rented by the
Chinese on the west of the Provinces of Kirin and Fêng-tien,
of which it has now become an integral part. Kuan-cheng-tzu
was originally in Mongolia, and so are all the towns and
villages to the west of the palisade, of which the principal
are Mai-mai-kai (Fenghua), Ch'ang-tu, and Cheng-chia-tun.
Mongolia is the great breeding land for horses and cattle. At
first sight when travelling through the country one is
astonished at the enormous size of the troops of ponies; but
when one considers that this territory supplies Siberia,
China, and Manchuria with animals, it is easy to see that the
supply is not greater than the demand. … The Mongols are
governed by their hereditary Princes, Chinese authority being
maintained by Imperial Residents at Ching-hai, in Western
Mongolia (Ko-ko-nor), and at Urga, in the north."
Great Britain,
Parliamentary Publications
(Papers by Command, China,
Number 1, 1899, pages 34-37).
MANCHUS:
Increasing ascendancy in Chinese Government.
See (in this volume)
CHINA: A. D. 1899 (APRIL).
MANETHO, Vindication of the list of.
See (in this volume)
ARCHÆOLOGICAL RESEARCH; EGYPT: RESULTS.
MANHATTAN BOROUGH.
See (in this volume)
NEW YORK CITY: A. D. 1896-1897.
MANILA:
The capital city of the Philippine Islands.
See (in this volume)
PHILIPPINE ISLANDS.
MANILA: A. D. 1898 (April-July).
Destruction of the Spanish fleet in Manila Bay.
Blockade and siege.
See (in this volume)
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1898 (APRIL-JULY).
MANILA: A. D. 1898 (July-September).
Capture by the Americans.
Relations of Americans with Filipino insurgents.
General Merritt's report.
See (in this volume)
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1898 (JULY-SEPTEMBER).
MANILA: A. D. 1900.
Regulation of the sale of liquors.
See (in this volume)
PHILIPPINE ISLANDS: A. D. 1900 (SEPTEMBER-NOVEMBER).
MANITOBA SCHOOL QUESTION.
See (in this volume)
CANADA; A. D. 1890-1896; and 1898 (JANUARY).
MARCHAND'S EXPEDITION.
See (in this volume)
EGYPT: A. D. 1898 (SEPTEMBER-NOVEMBER).
MARCONI, Guglielmo:
Development of wireless telegraphy.
See (in this volume)
SCIENCE, RECENT: ELECTRICAL.
MARIANNE ISLANDS:
Sale by Spain to Germany.
See (in this volume)
CAROLINE AND MARIANNE ISLANDS.
MARITIME CANAL COMPANY.
See (in this volume)
CANAL, INTEROCEANIC.
MARITIME POWERS.
See (in this volume)
NAVIES; and WAR BUDGETS.
MARITIME WARFARE, Convention relative to.
See (in this volume)
PEACE CONFERENCE.
MARRIAGE LAWS, Hungarian.
See (in this volume)
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: A. D. 1894-1895.
{303}
MARYLAND:
New election law, establishing a qualification of the suffrage.
A new election law, said to have been driven through the
Legislature by partisan pressure, and for the purpose of
disfranchising the majority of colored citizens, was passed by
both houses on the 20th of March, 1901. It is said to be
"considerably more fair than the North Carolina and similar
laws in States farther south. It disfranchises by means of
regulations which practically make it necessary for a voter to
be able to read his ballot. The illiterate are denied any
assistance when they go into the booths, and all emblems are
omitted from the ticket. The color line is not drawn. It is
believed that there are about 32,000 negroes and 16,000 whites
who will not be able to vote under this law. Practically all
of the negroes are supposed to be Republicans, while it is
estimated that the whites are divided about evenly between the
parties."
MASHONALAND:
Embraced in Rhodesia.
See (in this volume)
SOUTH AFRICA (BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA COMPANY):
A. D. 1894-1895.
MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1897.
Recovery of the original manuscript of Governor Bradford's
History of Plymouth Colony, sometimes called "The Log of the
Mayflower."
"It has long been well known that Governor Bradford wrote and
left behind him a history of the settlement of Plymouth. It
was quoted by early chroniclers. There are extracts from it in
the records at Plymouth. Thomas Prince used it when he
compiled his annals, Hubbard depended on it when he wrote his
'History of New England,' Cotton Mather had read it, or a copy
of a portion of it, when he wrote his 'Magnalia,' Governor
Hutchinson had it when he published the second volume of his
history in 1767. From that time it disappeared from the
knowledge of everybody on this side of the water. All our
historians speak of it as lost, and can only guess what had
been its fate. …
"In 1844 Samuel Wilberforce, Bishop of Oxford, afterward
Bishop of Winchester, One of the brightest of men, published
one of the dullest and stupidest of books. It is entitled 'The
History of the Protestant Episcopal Church in America.' It
contained extracts from manuscripts which he said he had
discovered in the library of the Bishop of London at Fulham.
The book attracted no attention here until, about twelve years
later, in 1855, John Wingate Thornton … happened to pick up a
copy of it while he was lounging in Burnham's book store. He
read the bishop's quotations, and carried the book to his
office, where he left it for his friend, Mr. Barry, who was
then writing his 'History of Massachusetts,' with passages
marked, and with a note which is not preserved, but which,
according to his memory, suggested that the passages must have
come from Bradford's long-lost history. That is the claim for
Mr. Thornton. On the other hand, it is claimed by Mr. Barry
that there was nothing of that kind expressed in Mr.
Thornton's note, but in reading the book when he got it an
hour or so later, the thought struck him for the first time
that the clue had been found to the precious book which had
been lost so long. He at once repaired to Charles Deane, then
and ever since, down to his death, as President Eliot
felicitously styled him, 'the master of historical
investigators in this country.' Mr. Deane saw the importance
of the discovery. He communicated at once with Joseph Hunter,
an eminent English scholar. Hunter was high authority on all
matters connected with the settlement of New England. He
visited the palace at Fulham, and established beyond question
the identity of the manuscript with Governor Bradford's
history, an original letter of Governor Bradford having been
sent over for comparison of handwriting.
"How the manuscript got to Fulham nobody knows. Whether it was
carried over by Governor Hutchinson in 1774; whether it was
taken as spoil from the tower of the Old South Church in 1775;
whether, with other manuscripts, it was sent to Fulham at the
time of the attempts of the Episcopal churches in America,
just before the Revolution, to establish an episcopate here,
—nobody knows."
George F. Hoar,
address, May 26, 1897,
on the Return of the Manuscript to Massachusetts.
After the discovery of the manuscript, several attempts to
bring about its return to America were made: by Justin Winsor,
in 1860, and again in 1877; by Mr. Motley, in 1869; and by
others. At length, Senator Hoar, after delivering an address
at Plymouth, in 1895, on the anniversary of the landing of the
Pilgrims, went abroad, with his interest in the matter warmly
stirred up, and took steps, in concurrence with Ambassador
Bayard, which led to the enlistment of potent influences on
both sides of the sea in favor of the restoration of the
precious piece of writing to its proper home. There were many
difficulties in procuring the necessary legal authority for
the surrender of the manuscript by the Bishop of
London,—difficulties not created wilfully, but by questions
and processes of law; but they were all overcome, with kindly
help from everybody concerned, and, on the 12th of April,
1897, the coveted manuscript book was formally delivered to
the United States Ambassador, Mr. Bayard, for conveyance to
the Governor of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. It was
delivered by Mr. Bayard in person, on the 26th of May
following, in the presence of the Senate and the House of
Representatives of Massachusetts, sitting together in the
chamber of the latter, with many guests invited for the
occasion. The ceremonies of the occasion included the address
by Senator Hoar from which the above account is taken.
The manuscript volume is now deposited in the State Library of
Massachusetts at Boston. A new edition, carefully reproducing
the text of the history from it, with a full report of the
proceedings incident to its return to Massachusetts, was
printed in 1900, under the direction of the Secretary of the
Commonwealth, by order of the General Court. The following
remarks on the manuscript are from the Introduction to that
edition:
"By very many it has been called, incorrectly, the log of the
'Mayflower.' Indeed, that is the title by which it is
described in the decree of the Consistorial Court of London.
The fact is, however, that Governor Bradford undertook its
preparation long after the arrival of the Pilgrims, and it
cannot be properly considered as in any sense a log or daily
journal of the voyage of the 'Mayflower.' It is, in point of
fact, a history of the Plymouth Colony, chiefly in the form of
annals, extending from the inception of the colony down to the
year 1647. The matter has been in print since 1856, put forth
through the public spirit of the Massachusetts Historical
Society, which secured a transcript of the document from
London, and printed it in the Society's Collections of the
above-named year."
{304}
MASSACRES:
Of Armenians in Constantinople.
See (in this volume)
TURKEY: A. D. 1896 (AUGUST).
MASSACRES:
Of Chinese by the allied troops.
See (in this volume)
CHINA: A. D. 1900 (AUGUST 5-16).
MASSACRES:
Of Chinese in Manchuria by the Russians.
See (in this volume)
MANCHURIA: A. D. 1900.
MASSACRES:
Of Christian missionaries and converts in China.
See (in this volume)
CHINA:
A. D. 1895 (AUGUST);
1898 (MAY);
1898-1899 (JUNE-JANUARY);
1899;
1900 (JANUARY-MARCH), (MAY-JUNE); and
1901 (MARCH).
MATABELES.
Matabeleland.
See (in this volume)
SOUTH AFRICA (BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA COMPANY):
A. D. 1894-1895; and
(RHODESIA); 1896 (MARCH-SEPTEMBER).
MATTHEW, The Gospel of:
Discovery of a fragment of an early copy.
See (in this volume)
ARCHÆOLOGICAL RESEARCH: EGYPT: RESULTS.
MAYFLOWER, The so-called Log of the.
See (in this volume, page 303)
MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1897.
MAZET INVESTIGATION, The.
See (in this volume)
NEW YORK CITY: A. D. 1899 (APRIL-DECEMBER).
MEAT INSPECTION BILL, The German.
See (in this volume)
GERMANY: A. D. 1900 (MAY).
MEDICAL SCIENCE, Recent advances in.
See (in this volume)
SCIENCE, RECENT: MEDICAL AND SURGICAL.
MEHTAR OF CHITRAL, The.
See (in this volume)
INDIA: A. D. 1895 (MARCH-SEPTEMBER).
MEIJI STATESMEN.
See (in this volume)
JAPAN: A. D. 1900 (AUGUST-OCTOBER).
MENA, The tomb of.
See (in this volume)
ARCHÆOLOGICAL RESEARCH: EGYPT: RESULTS.
MENELEK II., King of Shoa and Negus of Abyssinia.
See (in this volume)
EGYPT: A. D. 1885-1896.
MERENPTAH I., The funeral temple of.
See (in this volume)
ARCHÆOLOGICAL RESEARCH: EGYPT: RESULTS.
MERRIMAC, The sinking of the collier, at Santiago.
See (in this volume)
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1898 (APRIL-JUNE).
MERRITT, General: Report of capture of Manila.
See (in this volume)
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1898 (JULY-SEPTEMBER).
MESOPOTAMIA, Recent archæological research in.
See (in this volume)
ARCHÆOLOGICAL RESEARCH: BABYLONIA.
MESOPOTAMIA:
Projected railways.
See (in this volume)
TURKEY: A. D. 1899 (NOVEMBER); and
JEWS: A. D. 1899.
MEXICAN FREE ZONE, The.
"The Department of State has received through Consul-General
Barlow a report of the Free Zone, compiled by the Secretary of
the Treasury of Mexico, giving a history of the original
creation of the zone and defining its limits, and the
privileges and restrictions applicable thereto. The Free Zone
is a narrow strip of territory extending along the northern
border from the Gulf of Mexico to the Pacific Ocean, with a
latitudinal area of about 12½ miles to the interior, and
embracing a portion of the States of Tamaulipas, Coahnila,
Chihuahua, Sonora, and the territory of Lower California. It
was established many years ago [1861] by the Central
Government, as a compromise or concession to the States
bordering the Rio Grande, as a protection against smuggling
from the United States. The principal cities of the zone are
Matamoras, Camargo, Mier, Guerrero, Laredo, Porfirio Diaz
(Piedras Negras), Juarez, and Nogales. The total population
does not exceed 100,000 people. According to the official
reports, there exist within the limits of the free zone no
industries worth mentioning, which is explained by the fact
that all industrial products manufactured in the zone when
sent into the interior of the country are required to pay the
regular duties charged on imports into the country; and, on
account of the protective tariff of the United States, it is
impracticable to export such products to that country. Thus
the manufacturing industries would have to depend upon the
home consumption, which is not sufficient to maintain them.
All merchandise imported into the zone destined for
consumption therein is admitted on a basis of 10 per cent of
the regular tariff duties, but such merchandise when reshipped
into the interior of Mexico is required to pay an additional
duty of 90 per cent, making, in connection with the 10 per
cent already paid, the regular tariff duty of Mexico. In his
report the secretary of the treasury, Senor Limantour, makes
this statement: 'Many distinguished financiers and eminent
statesmen are opposed to the Free Zone, but all recognize the
fact that, on account of existing circumstances in the
northern frontier, its sparse population, without resources in
agriculture, industry, or mining, the privilege could not be
abolished without compensation, and the problem lies in
choosing some other advantage without prejudice to the rest of
the country.'"
Bulletin of the American Republics,
August, 1898.
"The franchise granted the Free Zone consisted, in the
beginning, in not levying any duty upon imported articles;
afterwards, however, some small duties, purely local, were
established, and the ordinance of 1887 established as a fixed
basis 3 per cent on the value of the duties according to
tariff—a basis which was raised to 10 per cent by the
ordinance of 1891. By subsequent decrees the duties were
raised l½ per cent for the municipality and 7 per cent for
stamps for internal revenue, the result of all this being that
the merchandise introduced into the Free Zone from abroad now
paid 18½ per cent upon the importation duties according to
tariff. … As the records of the frontier custom-houses of the
north make no distinction in the duties, those for the Free
Zone as well as those for the interior appearing in the same
classification, it is impossible to know exactly what the
treasury loses by the 90 per cent rebate on the duties of the
merchandise destined for consumption in the Free Zone; but,
admitting as an exaggerated estimate that the total
consumption of the Free Zone represents in duties $400,000
($177,600) a year, with the 10 per cent charge on this amount,
the average annual loss would be $365,000 ($162,060).
{305}
"The institution of the Free Zone obliges the Mexican
Government, in order to prevent the introduction clandestinely
into the interior of merchandise proceeding therefrom, to
maintain a body of fiscal guards at an annual expense of
$562,525.95 ($249,762). The guards of the custom-houses must
not be reckoned in this account; for these, with or without
the Free Zone, are necessary to prevent the smuggling which
would be carried on from the United States, and which is even
now done. In case of abolishing the Free Zone, it would not be
possible to completely suppress the fiscal guards; lessened in
number and with a distinct organization, they would have to be
maintained, especially since in case of their abolition the
entire duties would be charged (that is to say, 90 per cent
more than is now levied), and this would be inducement enough
to provoke attempts at smuggling. This body of guards, fiscal
as well as administrative, supplies the place of an interior
custom-house (although it does not levy duties), as it reviews
in certain instances the merchandise shipped through the
frontier custom-houses and in a military capacity guards the
roads leading to and from the frontier to prevent smuggling.
It has a system of fixed sections situated at convenient
locations between the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific, and of
flying detachments continually patrolling the strip of
territory named. Experience has demonstrated the usefulness of
the body, for instances of smuggling by wagons, carts, or
animals can be said to no longer exist."
Of smuggling, "there are two divisions to be made, as follows:
Smuggling to the interior of the Republic and smuggling to the
United State, of America. The first was at one time of
importance, since it was practiced on a large scale. Bands of
smugglers, resorting at times to violence, conducted
merchandise to the interior, but since the Republic entered
the period of peace the Government has been able to take
measures to end this illegal traffic. The custom-houses, which
formerly scarcely produced enough to pay the employees, now
render from $4,000,000 to $5,000,000 annually from import
duties.
"Smuggling from Mexico to the United States of America has
never been practiced to any great extent."
United States Consular Reports,
August, 1898, page 619.
----------MEXICO: Start--------
MEXICO: A. D. 1892-1895.
Boundary surveys.
The international commission which had been engaged since 1892
in resurveying the incorrectly marked boundary between Mexico
and the United States from San Diego, California, to El Paso,
Texas, finished its work in 1895. Another commission began in
the same year to resurvey the remainder of the boundary, along
the Rio Grande from El Paso to the Gulf.
MEXICO: A. D. 1895.
Boundary dispute with Guatemala.
There was a quite serious threatening of war between Mexico
and Guatemala in 1895, consequent upon a disputed boundary
line. The mediation of the United States brought about a
settlement, which gave the disputed district to Guatemala, and
provided for an arbitration of indemnities, the United States
Minister to Mexico being selected as arbitrator.
MEXICO: A. D. 1895.
Census of population.
Its distribution.
"The population of Mexico appears to be, from our … census …
in 1895, 12,570,195, which would give 16.38 for each square
mile; but from my personal knowledge of the country, I am
quite sure that it is not less than 15,000,000. It is very
difficult to take a correct census in Mexico, because there is
not the proper machinery in operation for that purpose, and
especially because a great many districts are inhabited by
Indians, who are impressed with the fear that if they inscribe
themselves in the census they will be taxed or drafted into
the military service, and they try to avoid registration.
"A great many of our people live in such remote districts that
they are practically cut off from communication with other
portions of the country, and in fact are almost isolated; and
this constitutes still another difficulty in the way of taking
a correct census. … The upper lands being the healthiest, most
of the population in Mexico is settled in the central plateau;
a relatively small portion lives in the temperate zone, while
the torrid zone is very thinly populated. I imagine, at a
rough calculation, that about 75 per cent. of the population
make their abode in the cold zone, from 15 to 18 per cent. in
the temperate zone, and from 7 to 10 per cent. in the torrid
zone.
"From the synopsis of our censuses, … it appears that the
population in Mexico has duplicated during the last century,
and although that increase does not keep pace with the
increase in the United States, because this has been really
wonderful, it compares favorably with the increase in other
countries."
M. Romero,
Mexico and the United States,
volume 1, pages 89-90
(New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons).
MEXICO: A. D. 1896.
Amendments to the Constitution.
See (in this volume)
CONSTITUTION OF MEXICO.
MEXICO: A. D. 1896.
Re-election of President Diaz.
By a popular election held on the 28th of June, 1896, followed
by a vote of "electors" cast July 13, Porfirio Diaz was chosen
President of the Republic of Mexico for a fifth term of four
years, to begin December 1, 1896.
MEXICO: A. D. 1896 (July).
Abolition of inter-state taxes.
The following announcement was reported in May, 1896, by the
United States Consul-General at the City of Mexico: "'All the
States and Territories having approved the amendment to the
constitution prohibiting any interstate tax on commerce
(alcabalas), Congress has passed the bill, the President has
signed it, the Diario Official has published it, and it will
soon be promulgated by "bando." as the Vice-Presidency was the
other day. The law takes effect July 1.' This tax has been in
existence for many years in Mexico, and has been a source of
much embarrassment to internal and external trade. Its repeal
meets with general approval, although some of the States will
be compelled to seek other modes of taxation to replace the
money heretofore obtained by this interstate tax."
United States Consular Reports,
June, 1806, page 354.
{306}
MEXICO: A. D. 1896-1899.
Revolts of the Yaquis.
The Yaquis, one of the native tribes of northwestern Mexico,
taking their name from the river, in Sonora, on which they
dwell, have been in frequent revolt. In 1896, and again in
1899, some of the tribe were fiercely in arms, excited, it was
said, by a religious enthusiast, Teresa Urrea, who claimed a
divine mission and obtained boundless influence over her
tribe, as a saint. She was expelled from the country by the
Mexican government, but stayed on the border, in United States
territory, and continued to stir up hostilities. Though
repeatedly beaten by the government troops, with heavy loss,
their late rising was obstinately persisted in for many
months; but early in 1900 their chief, Tetabiate, was slain,
and a few sharp engagements after that time seems to have
brought the revolt, practically, to an end. A writer in the
California magazine, entitled "The Land of Sunshine" (July,
1899), says of the Yaquis that they are "the backbone of the
population of Sonora. They are the best workmen in the
republic, commanding from 10 to 20 per cent. higher wages in
many localities than Mexican or other Indian labor. There is
not a lazy bone in the Yaqui body. They are a peaceable,
law-abiding people when justly treated. From time immemorial
they have been hunters, miners, and tillers of the soil. They
have the nomad instinct in less degree than almost any other
Indian tribe."
Another writer makes this statement: "There are about three
hundred wild and rebellious Yaqui Indians hidden in the
fastnesses of the Bacatete Mountains, and some thirty thousand
peaceful Yaquis working all over Sonora—among the best workers,
the most successful farmers, and the quietest citizens in the
whole state. … There are few things in the history of the
native races of North America of such absorbing interest as
the career of the Yaqui Indians. The Spanish conquistadores
found them living in this country three hundred and fifty
years ago. They were a strong and stalwart race. Put a Yaqui
by the side of an Iroquois and you can hardly tell them apart.
Put a Yaqui and an Iroquois by the side of any other Indians
in North America, and their physical superiority is seen at
once. Compare them physically with all the other races of the
earth and you will find that they have few, if any, superiors.
The Yaquis were not, however, like their prototypes, the
Iroquois, dependent upon the chase for their food. From the
beginning they were not woodsmen, but farmers. Cabeza de Vaca,
after his long, romantic and perilous journey across the
continent, found great fields of Indian corn waving on the
Yaqui River as far back as 1636. When the early Spanish
missions were established in the Californias they obtained
their supplies from the agricultural Indians in the Yaqui
Valley, and many are the Spanish armies that have been saved
from starvation in times past by the Yaqui corn fields."
W. S. Logan,
Yaqui, the Land of Sunshine and Health,
pages 15, 17.
MEXICO: A. D. 1898.
Completion of the great drainage tunnel and canal
of the City of Mexico.
"Mexico is finishing a great work, the drainage of the valley
where the capital city is located, which has required for its
completion nearly three hundred years and many millions of
dollars, and has cost the lives of hundreds of thousands of
men. … The Valley of Mexico is an immense basin, of
approximately circular shape, with one extreme diameter of
about 60 miles, completely bounded by high mountains, and
having only two or three quite high passes out of it. No water
drains out of the basin. The surface of this valley has a mean
altitude above the sea of 7,413 feet and an area of about
2,220 square miles. Mountain ranges rise on every side, making
a great corral of rock containing dozens of villages and
hamlets, with the ancient capital in the centre. … Evaporation
is so excessive at certain periods of the year that malaria,
consequent on drouth, was far more dreaded by the inhabitants
than the periodical floods, and thousands perished annually,
so that proper drainage was an absolute necessity for the
preservation of health. Nearly fifty years before the
discovery of America, which took place in 1492,
Netzahualcoyotl saw the necessity for a drainage canal, and
commenced the work in 1450." The Spaniards, throughout their
rule, labored at projects to the same end, and sacrificed the
lives of vast numbers of the natives in the work, without much
result.
"Frequent floodings of the old Aztec city and of the Spanish
capital, situated almost at the lowest point of the valley,
were sure to come in times of unusually heavy rains. In early
days, when the Aztecs lived in the middle of Lake Mexico, when
their temples and wigwams were built on piles and the streets
were often only canals, the periodical overflows from the
upper lakes were a matter of small concern, though even then
the Nahua engineers were called upon to protect the city by
dykes. But when by evaporation, by filling in at the site of
the city, by lessened waters, due to the fissures caused by
earthquakes, Lake Mexico had disappeared, and the city had
come to be built on the spongy soil, above all, when the
short-sighted choice of Cortez had been confirmed and the
capital of New Spain had come to stand on the ruins of the
Aztec town, increasing rapidly in population and wealth,—it
became a serious matter that on an average of once in
twenty-five years the streets should be from two to six feet
under water for an indefinite time. …
"In 1866 the works now [1895] nearing completion were
commenced. A project proposed by Señor Don Francisco de Garay,
a well-known engineer of the city of Mexico, was pronounced
the most feasible. But the revolutionary struggle succeeded,
and for many years the work was relegated to the background. …
The present gigantic work cannot have been considered to have
been seriously undertaken, with a view of completion at any
cost, until the year 1885, when the City Council of Mexico
submitted a project to the Government to which they offered to
contribute largely in the event of its being adopted. A
special commission, with ample authority to deal with the
funds set aside for the work, was appointed by President
Porfirio Diaz. …
"The drainage works, when carried out, will receive the
surplus waters and sewage of the City of Mexico and carry them
outside of the valley, and will also control the entire waters
of the valley, affording an outlet, whenever found necessary,
to those which might otherwise overflow fields and towns,
rendering the soil stagnant and marshy. The work consists of
three parts—1st, the tunnel; 2d, a canal starting from the
gates of San Lazaro, and having a length of 47½ kilometres, or
43 miles; … and 3d, the sewage of the City of Mexico. …
{307}
As this paper goes to press, the drainage works of the Valley
of Mexico are practically finished, as the waters of the
valley have been for several years passing through the canal
and the tunnel to their outlet in the river which takes them
to the Gulf of Mexico, and the company with whom the canal was
contracted is now giving the finishing touches to the sides
and bottom of the canal and will deliver it to the Government
Board of the Drainage Directors in January, 1898. …
"The canal and six-mile tunnel through the mountain range have
a total length approaching 37 miles. The present works will
take rank with the great achievements of modern times, just as
the immense 'cut' of Nochistongo, their unsuccessful predecessor,
was the leader among ancient earthworks in all the world. The
completed system will have cost $20,000,000."
M. Romero,
Mexico and the United States,
pages 266-280
(New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons).
MEXICO: A. D. 1898-1900.
The results of twenty years of the presidency of Porfirio Diaz.
The wonderful advance of the Republic.
In his interesting book on Mexico, entitled "The Awakening of
a Nation," written in 1898, Mr. Charles F. Lummis expresses
the opinion that, under the Presidency of Porfirio Diaz, that
country "has graduated to be the most compact and unified
nation in the New World"; that "she has acquired not only a
government which governs, but one which knows how to govern—
and contemporaneously a people which has learned how to be
ruled"; and he characterizes its government as "logical
paternalism—a scheme frightfully dangerous under a bad father,
incalculably beneficial under a good one." Two years later, in a
contribution to an elaborate "Review of the Nineteenth
Century," by many writers, which was published by the "New
York Evening Post," January 12, 1901, Mr. Lummis wrote:
"Before Diaz, the rich and ancient capital had spent two and a
half centuries and ten millions in vain attempts to relieve
its recurrent Hoods. Sewerage was unknown. Today the valley is
drained and sewered by a system nowhere surpassed. Electric
lighting, transit, and power-transmission are in vogue. Law
and order are of a proportion we may well envy. Public
education and individual scholarship have no call to blush in
any fair comparison with any land. Business is prosperous,
almost without individual exceptions. Factories of all sorts—
and some of the costliest and finest factories in the
world—have sprung up by the thousand. The comminuted bones of
a national spirit have knit as they never were before.
Nowadays, it is not Mexico, but we, who are 'fooled' when we
omit her from the category of the nations that count. She does
count; she will count far more. She has mastered anarchy, she
has triumphed even over free silver. She is busily engaged in
practising one of the first gospels and mottoes of the
American colonies—'Mind Your Own Business'—and is making a
magnificent success at it. It is a curious problem in the
philosophies of history, what shall be the outcome of a nation
which instead of being born rugged and growing old and easy, was
born old and in the last quarter-century has come into the
heritage of sturdy youth. For it is as a young nation, with
muscles still growing, that we must think of new Old Mexico."
Honorable John W. Foster, writing to the "New York Tribune,"
on the 9th of January, 1901, from the City of Mexico, where he
formerly resided for some years as United States Minister, has
borne similar testimony to the astonishing progress of the
country. "Since the advent of General Porfirio Diaz to power
in 1876," writes Mr. Foster, "there has been no foreign war
and no serious disturbance of an internal character, the only
exception being the outbreak of certain semi-independent
Indian tribes. In the previous fifty years of the existence of
the republic there had been as many presidents, the majority
of whom owed their existence to revolutionary movements. The
wretched story of Mexican history of that period is too
familiar to be repeated here. … In his inaugural address to
Congress last month, on being again installed as President, he
[president Diaz] referred to the achievements of Mexico in the
last twenty-five years, and modestly said that in it there
were no brilliant deeds to chronicle. From that notable
address I make this extract: 'If it were true that a peaceful
and laborious people have no history, the administration
period I am about to review would almost be devoid of history.
But, on the contrary, those nations that deserve to be called
happy in the only intelligible sense of the word, far from
being without a history, have a very glorious and interesting
one, if, besides being peaceful and laborious, they are also
progressive. That history is the history of their progress,
their achievements, their growing prosperity, of the
improvements of every kind which they have introduced—a
history which, in this modern age and the present constitution
of civilized societies, is as interesting as that of their
past and just as deserving of attention.'"
A report for 1900 by the British Consul at Vera Cruz is to the
same effect. The result of the recent elections he describes
as an assurance of prosperity and a guarantee of the foreign
capital invested in the country. Few countries, the Consul
observes, can boast of such rapid and beneficial reforms as
Mexico; these have, in a short time, prepared the way for the
development of her extensive resources, which are themselves a
sufficient assurance of the future. The finances have of
recent years been brought to a high state of excellence, and
commerce throughout the Republic has flourished. Foreign
capital has flowed in steadily, railway construction has
progressed, and other modes of communication have improved,
the telegraph and postal service have been reformed. The
improvement of inter-oceanic communication across the
Tehuantepec isthmus, with the harbors now being constructed on
both coasts, will revolutionize the foreign trade of Mexico.
It will take more than three years to complete the
reconstruction of the railway and to put the ports in a
condition to enable freight to be taken from the ship's side
at one port and placed alongside the ship at the other within
24 hours. The Consul thinks the route is destined to become
one of the principal thoroughfares of the world, competing
with all other routes between Europe and the Far East.
{308}
Of what has been done for public education in Mexico under the
Diaz government the following account is given in one of the
publications (1900) of the Bureau of the American Republics:
"Education in Mexico has been for many years the subject of
serious consideration on the part of the Government, on
account of the difficulty experienced in combating the
conservative ideas prevailing in the Republic. The main
obstacles have, however, been overcome, and the country to-day
enjoys the benefit of a liberal system of education, which is
administered under three branches—gratuitous, lay, and
obligatory. … The law making education compulsory was
promulgated March 23, 1888, but its enforcement was not
decreed at that time, and the first Congress of Public
Education was convened for the purpose of adopting such
measures as should tend to establish an efficient and uniform
system of education. This congress met on December 1, 1889,
and closed its sessions on March 31, 1890. … A second congress
was convened on December 1, 1890, which solved certain
problems on compulsory elemental education, fixed the methods
to be followed in the schools of superior primary education,
and settled matters pertaining to normal schools, preparatory
education, and special schools. As the result of this
congress, the law of March 21, 1891, was enacted, regulating
compulsory education in the Federal District and the
Territories of Tepic and Lower California, which law became
effective on January 17, 1892. …
"On May 19, 1896, the law of public education was promulgated,
its salient points being as follows:
Official primary elemental education in the Federal Districts
and Federal Territories was placed under the exclusive control
of the Executive; primary superior education was organized as
an intermediate educational system between elementary and
preparatory instruction. A general board of primary education
was created, charged to develop and maintain the same under a
scientific and administrative plan. Preparatory education was
decreed to be uniform for all professions, its extent being
limited to the study of such matters as are necessary to the
development of the physical and intellectual faculties and the
morals of youth, it being further directed that professional
education be reorganized, limiting it to technical matters
which pertain to the profession or professions to which each
particular school is devoted.
"By virtue of this law public education ceased to be in charge
of the Board of Aldermen (ayuntamientos) of the
above-mentioned sections. At the time of its promulgation the
municipality of Mexico contained 113 schools, supported by the
Board of Aldermen, 14,246 students being entered on the rolls,
with an average attendance of 9,798. Each State defrays the
expenses of public education, either with funds specially
appropriated for that purpose or with the municipal funds.
"According to statistical data, in 1876, there were throughout
the country 8,165 primary schools, with 368,754 students of
both sexes. In 1895 Government schools reached the number of
4,056, of which 2,189 were for males, 1,119 for females, and
748 for both sexes; municipal schools numbered 3,394—for
males, 1,754; females, 932; both sexes, 708. These comprised
7,380 primary, 32 secondary, and 35 professional schools, the
number of students enrolled being 310,496 males and 181,484
females (a total of 491,980), and the mean attendance 338,066.
The total cost to the Government and the municipalities for
the maintenance of these institutions was $3,973,738. In the
same year private schools to the number of 1,816 were being
conducted, 659 for males, 460 for females, and the remainder
under a coeducational system. In addition, 276 were supported
by the clergy and 146 by associations, the total number of
students enrolled being 68,879, of which 40,135 were males and
38,744 females. The total number of private schools was
accordingly 2,238, of which 2,193 were devoted to primary
education, 34 to secondary instruction, and 11 to professions.
"The statistics for 1897, which are the latest available, give
the following figures:
SCHOOLS. 1896. 1897.
Federal and State Governments. 5,852 6,141
Municipal. 3,218 1,953
Private institutions. 1,953 1,797
Supported by the clergy. 303 285
Supported by associations. 186 122
"Using the figures given in 1896 for Vera Cruz and the Federal
District as identical for 1897, it may be safely assumed that
on December 31, 1897, the public schools in Mexico (Federal,
State, and municipal) stood as follows:
Number of schools. 9,065
Students enrolled. 666,787
Average monthly attendance. 458,035
Private institutions. 2,361
Number of students. 92,387
Average attendance. 75,857
"The total expenditures for the support of Federal, State, and
municipal schools amounted in 1897 to $6,291,000. In addition
to the normal and primary schools, the Government also
supports the following institutions:
School of jurisprudence,
school of medicine,
school of agriculture and veterinary instruction,
school of engineers,
school of fine arts,
school of arts and trades for men,
and a similar institution for women,
school of commerce and administration.
National conservatory of music,
preparatory school,
schools for the blind, for deaf-mutes;
reform schools, etc.,
also 9 museums, and 17 libraries containing from 400 to
159,000 volumes. Beside the Government institutions above
mentioned, there are throughout the country 26 museums, 83
libraries, 32 scientific and literary associations, and 457
periodical publications."
Bureau of American Republics,
Mexico: a Geographical Sketch,
page 313.
MEXICO: A. D. 1899 (May-July).
Representation in the Peace Conference at The Hague.
See (in this volume)
PEACE CONFERENCE.
MEXICO: A. D. 1900 (January).
Re-election of President Diaz.
President Porfirio Diaz was reelected on January 1, for
a sixth term of four years.
MEXICO: A. D. 1900 (October).
Census of the Republic.
Gains shown in five years.
Announcement was made from Washington, on the 24th of
February, 1901, that "complete official returns of the census
taken on October 28, 1900, received by the Bureau of American
Republics, shows that the population of Mexico is 13,570,545,
against a population of 12,632,427 [given by M. Romero as
12,570,195—see above] in 1895. The gain in five years was
938,118, or 7.43 per cent. due in part to the greater accuracy
of the latest enumeration. The Federal District, in which is
located the City of Mexico, is the most densely populated
portion of the republic, and contains 530,723 people.
{309}
The City of Mexico increased about 20,000 in five years, and
now has nearly 357,000 inhabitants. The population of seven
States, Jalisco, Guanajuato, Puebla. Vera Cruz, Oaxaca,
Michoacan and Mexico, is 6,995,880, or a little more than
one-half of the entire population of the country. The
population of the States of Sonora, Tamaulipas, Tlaxcala,
Morelos, Tabasco, Aguas Calientes, Campeche, Colima, and the
territories of Tepic and Lower California, the total area of
which is more than one-fourth the entire country, is slightly
in excess of 1,380,000, or a density of only about 2.7
inhabitants to the square kilometre. The central and southern
portions of the republic are the most thickly populated, the
Western and Northern States being the most sparsely settled,
and the Gulf region, or eastern coast, contains a larger
number of inhabitants than the Pacific Coast region. … The
greatest percentage of increase is noted in the northern
States. These States, in addition to being good agricultural
districts, are enormously rich in mineral wealth, and the
large increase in population in this part of the country is
chiefly due to the rapid development of the mines of the
republic, the erection of smelters and manufacturing plants,
and to the general stimulus given to trade and commerce by the
construction of railroads and the heavy investments of foreign
capital in the republic."
----------MEXICO: End--------
MIDDLE-OF-THE-ROAD POPULISTS, The.
See (in this volume)
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1896 (JUNE-November); and 1900 (MAY-NOVEMBER).
MILAN, Ex-King:
His later years and death.
See (in this volume)
BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES (SERVIA).
MILAN: A. D. 1898.
Revolutionary outbreak.
See (in this volume)
ITALY: A. D. 1898 (APRIL-MAY).
MILES, General Nelson A.:
Operations against Santiago de Cuba.
See (in this volume)
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1898 (JUNE-JULY).
MILES, General Nelson A.:
Commanding expedition against Porto Rico.
See (in this volume)
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1898 (JULY-AUGUST: PORTO RICO).
MILES, General Nelson A.:
Charges against the Commissary Department, U. S. Army.
See (in this volume)
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1898-1899.
MILITARY ESTABLISHMENTS:
Armies of Europe and America and their cost.
See (in this volume)
WAR BUDGETS.
MILLENNIUM, The Hungarian.
See (in this volume)
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: A. D. 1896.
MILNER, Sir Alfred:
Governor of Cape Colony and High Commissioner for South Africa.
See (in this volume)
SOUTH AFRICA: A. D. 1897 (FEBRUARY), and after.
MILNER, Sir Alfred:
Governor of the Transvaal and British High Commissioner.
See (in this volume)
SOUTH AFRICA (BRITISH COLONIES): A. D. 1901 (JANUARY).
MINDANAO.
See (in this volume)
PHILIPPINE ISLANDS.
MINERS, Strikes among.
See (in this volume)
INDUSTRIAL DISTURBANCES.
MINNESOTA: A. D. 1896.
Constitutional amendments.
Use of the Referendum.
Several constitutional amendments were submitted to the voters
of the State and adopted; among them one requiring citizenship
of the United States for three months and residence in the
State for six months before permitting a new-comer to vote;
another vesting the pardoning power in a Board of Pardons;
another empowering cities to frame their own charters, subject
to the State laws. At the same time, the Referendum was
brought into practical use, by the submission of several
legislative acts to the popular vote. One of the acts thus
submitted, providing for the holding of a constitutional
convention, was rejected.
MINNESOTA: A. D. 1898.
Outbreak of Pillager Indians.
See (in this volume)
INDIANS, AMERICAN: A. D. 1898.
MINOS, The Palace of:
Its supposed discovery.
See (in this volume)
ARCHÆOLOGICAL RESEARCH: CRETE.
MISSIONARIES, Christian:
The outbreak against in China.
See (in this volume)
CHINA: A. D. 1895 (AUGUST);
1898 (MAY);

1898-1899 (JUNE-JANUARY);
1899; 1900 (JANUARY-MARCH), (MAY-JUNE);
and 1901 (MARCH).
MISSIONARIES, Christian:
Outbreak against in Madagascar.
See (in this volume)
MADAGASCAR.
MISSIONS, Christian:
The Ecumenical Conference of 1900 in New York.
Statistics of the Protestant foreign missionary
work of the world.
The third Ecumenical Conference on Protestant foreign missions
(the second having been held in London in 1888) was assembled
at New York on the 21st of April, 1900, under circumstances
related as follows in volume I. of the official report: "The
immediate origin of the Ecumenical Conference of 1900 was the
discussion of a question put in the 'question box' at the
Annual Conference of Foreign Missions Boards of the United
States and Canada, which met in New York in January, 1896, as
to whether it would be advisable to invite the secretaries or
representatives of societies from the other side of the
Atlantic to meet with the Annual Conference of the American
societies as it was then held, consisting chiefly of the
officers of the Boards. The Reverend F. F. Ellinwood. D. D.,
speaking to the question, said: 'I have had a hope that in the
year 1898, ten years from the great London Conference, we
might invite our brethren from all lands to a great Ecumenical
Conference on Missions.'
"Following this suggestion, a committee of five, consisting of
the Reverend Drs. Judson Smith, F. F. Ellinwood, A. B.
Leonard, S. W. Duncan, and William S. Langford was appointed
'to consider the advisability of calling an Ecumenical
Missionary Conference, to meet in this country within the next
four years, to make preliminary preparation therefor, if
deemed advisable, and to report at the Conference of the
following year.' This committee corresponded with missionary
societies throughout the world, and at the next Annual
Conference recommended that such a Conference be held in New
York City in April of the year 1900; that this recommendation
be communicated to the societies, and a final date agreed
upon. In January, 1898, after further correspondence, the
place and date were finally decided." Measures were taken to
raise a guarantee fund of $30,000 for expenses, and other
preparations were made. Then "under date of June 1, 1899, a
general invitation was sent to every missionary whose name and
address could be secured, to attend the Conference and
participate in the discussions."
{310}
The Conference was opened in Carnegie Hall, New York, on the
21st of April, 1900, and continued its sessions, there and in
neighboring churches, until the 1st of May. "The personnel of
the Conference was broadly representative. It consisted
(1) of delegates appointed by organizations conducting foreign
missions outside of Europe and America;
(2) the missionaries of such organizations, and
(3) members elected by the Executive Committee.
The British and Continental and other foreign societies were
invited to send as many delegates as possible. The American
and Canadian societies were limited in the number of their
delegates; the total from both countries, being fixed at
1,666, was apportioned among the societies on the basis of
their expenditures in foreign missions. All foreign
missionaries in active service or retired were received as
full members. Some of the honorary members and vice-presidents
who were unable to attend desired to have their names
connected with so historic a gathering. Members of committees
and speakers, who were not already delegates, were by a
general act of the Executive Committee, constituted 'special
members.' In addition to the members of the Conference a large
number of persons came from far and near to attend the
meetings. Over fifty thousand tickets to the Carnegie Hall and
alternate meetings were distributed among this class of
visitors. Many thousands more attended the sectional and
overflow meetings where no tickets were required. The
Honorable Benjamin Harrison, for four years President of the
United States of America, occupied the chair, and made an
opening speech."
The magnitude of the organizations of missionary work, all the
interests, needs and fruits of which were discussed in the
Conference, is most succinctly represented in the subjoined
tables, prepared by Dr. James S. Dennis, which are given in
the appendix to the official report (pages 424-426, volume 2).
The classification appearing in the tables is explained as
follows:
"The Bible Societies, the Tract and Literature Societies, the
United Society of Christian Endeavor, the Epworth Leagues, and
similar organizations, philanthropic specialties like that of
the Pundita Ramabai in India, with a considerable number of
organizations, foreign missionary in title and purpose, but
simply rendering financial or other aid to existing
societies—demand recognition, and yet should they be counted
as strictly and technically foreign missionary societies? It
was chosen for the present purpose, to differentiate and
classify, naming three classes of societies as follows;
Class I. Societies directly engaged in conducting foreign
missions.
Class II. Societies indirectly co-operating or aiding in
foreign missions.
Class III. Societies or Institutions independently engaged in
specialized effort in various departments of foreign
missions."
MISSISSIPPI: A. D. 1890-1892.
New State Constitution.
Qualification of the suffrage.
A new State Constitution, framed and put in force in 1890 by a
constitutional convention, without submission to the people,
established a qualification of the suffrage which heavily
diminished the negro vote by its effect. It imposed a pool tax
of two dollars per head, to which any county might add a
further tax not exceeding one dollar per head, which poll tax
for the year every voter must have paid before his ballot
would be received at any election. A further clause of the
Constitution on the subject was as follows: "On and after the
first day of January, A. D. 1892, the following qualifications
are added to the foregoing: Every qualified elector shall be
able to read any section of the Constitution of this State, or
he shall be able to understand the same when read to him, or
to give a reasonable interpretation thereof. A new
registration shall be made before the next ensuing election
after these qualifications are established. Electors in
municipal elections shall possess all the qualifications
herein prescribed, and such additional qualifications as may
be prescribed by law." In 1892 the Supreme Court of the State
affirmed the validity of the Constitution, which had been
challenged on two grounds, namely: that it had not been
submitted to the vote of the people, and that it was in
conflict with the Fourteenth Amendment of the Constitution of
the United States.
So far, the disfranchisement of the mass of blacks seems to
have had an unlooked for evil effect. "The Negro eliminated,
only one political party remains, and political stagnation has
followed. In Mississippi, the requirement that a poll tax be
paid long before the election deprives many white men also of
their votes. But it does not bar them out of nominating
conventions. Many communities are ruled by a mere handful of
whites who cannot even cast a ballot. For instance, there are
320,000 males of voting age in Mississippi, but the whole vote
cast in the State in November was only 59,000. This is 11,000
votes less than were cast four years ago under the same
restrictions of suffrage. In other words, the whole State of
Mississippi cast practically 110 more ballots to elect seven
members of Congress than were cast in a single congressional
district in New York. (The fourteenth New York district cast
58,000 votes.) In the town of Eudora, where a mayor, a
marshal, a treasurer, and four aldermen were elected, only
eight votes were cast, and of the eight voters seven are said
to have been candidates for office.
"'The same men,' says a trustworthy despatch from New Orleans,
'were voters, candidates for office, and judges of election to
pass as judges on their own votes as voters for themselves;
and in spite of all their efforts they could get only one
outsider to come to the polls and cast his ballot.' This is an
extreme case; but in every State that has disfranchised the
Negro (making a discrimination between him and the ignorant
white man, in the white man's favor) political activity has
constantly disappeared, the vote has shrunk, public spirit in
politics has died. In Louisiana the total vote in November
fell from 99,000 in 1896 to 61,000; of Mississippi, from
69,000 to 59,000; of South Carolina, from 68,000 to 50,000—the
shrinkage in four years in these three States being nearly
68,000 votes, in spite of the increase of population."
The World's Work,
February, 1901.
MODDER RIVER, Military operations on.
See (in this volume)
SOUTH AFRICA (THE FIELD OF WAR):
A. D. 1899 (OCTOBER-DECEMBER); and
1900 (JANUARY-FEBRUARY).
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