Very similar appearances to those described will result if a thin plate of glass were studded with minute, equal, and equi-distant plano-convex lenses, the foci of which would very nearly lie in the same plane. If the focal surface, or plane of vision, of the objective be made to coincide with this plane, a series of bright points will result, from the excess of light falling on each lens. If the plane of vision be next made to coincide with the surfaces of the lenses, these points would appear dark, in consequence of the rays being refracted towards points now out of focus. Lastly, if the plane of vision be made to coincide with the plane beneath the lenses that contain their several foci, so that each lens may be, as it were, combined with the object-glass, then a second series of bright points will result from the accumulation of the rays transmitted at those points. Moreover, as all rays capable of entering the objective are concerned in the formation of the second series of bright focal points, the first series being formed by the rays of a cone of light only, it is evident that the circle of least confusion must be much less, and therefore the bright points better defined in the first than in the last series.
There are no set of objects which have given rise to more discussion as to their precise character than the scales of the podura (Lepidocyrtus cervicollis), to the intimate structure of which Mr. Smith turned his attention, and succeeded, I am inclined to think, in his attempt to settle the structure of these very minute scales, and which heretofore have been described as “notes of exclamation.” By the aid of the same power as that employed in the examination of the pleurosigma formosum, the old conventional markings have disappeared, and well-defined “featherlets” have taken their place. By careful focussing up and down, a series of whitish pin-like bodies is to be seen, with an intervening secondary structure. A micro-photograph of a portion of a scale taken by Mr. Smith shows that these pin-like bodies are inserted in a fold of the basement membrane, which, in his opinion, furnish unmistakable evidence of the fact that these projecting bodies are real, and must no longer be looked upon as mere ghosts. Quite recently, a micro-photograph of a portion of a podura scale was placed in my hands, taken by Mr. J. W. Gifford with a Swift’s 1⁄12-inch apochromatic objective, of numerical aperture 1·40, and a deep eye-piece, having a combined magnifying power of 3,827 diameters. [Fig. 206] shows a portion of the photograph which, it will be admitted, supports Mr. Smith’s view of the structure of the podura scale.
Fig. 206.—Podura Scale, taken with a 1⁄12 Swift’s Immersion × 3,827.
Many other errors of interpretation are not unknown to the experienced operator with the microscope, arising, for the most part, from an influence exerted by peculiarities in the internal structure of certain objects; for example, that offered by the human hair, and which, when viewed by transmitted light, presents the appearance of a flattened-out band, with a darkish centre, due to the refractive influence of the rays of light transmitted through the hair. That it is a solid or tubular structure is proved by making a transverse section of the hair-shaft, when it is seen filled up by medullary matter, the centre being somewhat darker than the outer part. It is, in fact, a spiral outgrowth of the epithelial scales, overlapping each other, imparting a striated appearance to the surface. A cylindrical thread of glass in balsam appears as a flattened, band-like streak, of little brilliancy. Another instance of fallacy arising from diversity in the refractive power of the internal parts of an object is furnished by the mistakes formerly made with regard to the true character of the lacunæ and canaliculi of bone structure. These were long supposed to be solid corpuscles, with radiating opaque filaments proceeding from a dense centre; on the contrary, they are minute chambers, with diverging passages—excavations in the solid osseous structure. That such is the case is shown by the effects of Canada balsam, which infiltrates the osseous substance.
Air bubbles are a perplexing source of trouble. The better way of becoming accustomed to deceptive appearances of the kind is to compare the aspect of globules of oil in water with bubbles of air in water, or Canada balsam.
The molecular movements of finely divided particles, seen in nearly all cases when certain objects are first suspended in water, or other fluids, are a frequent cause of embarrassment to beginners. If a minute portion of indigo or carmine be rubbed up with a little water, and a drop placed on a glass slide under the microscope, it will at once exhibit a peculiar perpetual motion appearance. This movement was first observed in the granular particles seen among pollen grains of plants, known as fovilla, and which are set free when the pollen is crushed. Important vital endowments were formerly attributed to these particles, but Dr. Robert Brown showed that such granules were common enough both in organic and inorganic substances, and were in no way “indicative of life.”[42]
Professor Jevons succeeded in throwing light on these curious movements. He showed that they were not due to evaporation, as some observers contended, as they continue when all possibility of evaporation is cut off, when the fluid is surrounded by a layer of oil, and enclosed in an air-tight case: but as Professor Jevons pointed out, these movements are greatly affected by the admixture of various substances with water, being increased by a small quantity of gum, and checked by a drop of sulphuric acid, or a few grains of some saline substance, which increases the conducting power of water for electricity. The Brownian movement, now termed pedesis, much depends upon the size of the particles, their specific gravity, and the nature of the liquid in which they are immersed.
The correct conclusions to be drawn by the microscopist regarding the nature of an object will necessarily depend upon previous experience in microscopic observations, a knowledge of the class of bodies brought under observation, and the skill of the observer in the use of the instrument—that is, in securing the best focus possible with any objective brought into use. I am indebted to Messrs. Beck for the following series of illustrations, showing the effect of under and over correction of the objective.