France a Centralized Republic.—In France we find an entirely different type of republic—not federal, but centralized. France is divided into eighty-six departments, which correspond in some respects to our States. But in their relation to the central government the difference is very striking; for the departments are merely administrative divisions of the central government. They are completely subject to the national government. The chief authority in each department is a prefect, who is appointed by the ministry of France (the central executive body) and is responsible to it. There is a legislative body in each department, called the general council, but the powers of this body are very much restricted.
The national government of France exercises legislative authority upon many subjects in the departments, and it administers the laws directly. Consequently, the people's powers of local self-government are very much less extensive than those enjoyed by the people in the United States. There result in France much greater uniformity of legislation and more effective administration; while in many parts of the United States local self-government results in corrupt laws and wasteful administration. But we believe that the people will become educated in the use of political power if the responsibility for its use rests upon them, rather than upon some central authority.
The Swiss Republic.—An example of a federal republic is the government of Switzerland. Here the cantons correspond to our States, and each canton has control over its own local affairs, without interference from the federal government. The chief features of the French and the Swiss governments are indicated in the accompanying outline:[[62]]
| United States | Switzerland | France |
|---|---|---|
|
Congress Senate Two members from each state Six years |
Federal Assembly State Council Two members from each canton |
The Chambers Senate 300 members elected by an electoral college in each department |
| House of Representatives 433 members elected by people Two years | National Council 147 members elected by people Three years | Chamber of Deputies 591 deputies elected by people Four years |
|
President Elected by electors, i.e. by the people of the States Four years |
President Elected by Federal Assembly One year |
President Elected by National Assembly; i.e. Senate and Chamber of Deputies in joint session Seven years |
| Cabinet Nine members appointed by President and Senate | Federal Council Seven members elected by Federal Assembly | Ministry Twelve members appointed by President |
Constitutional Monarchies—Monarchies are classified as (1) constitutional and (2) absolute. In constitutional monarchies the ruler holds his position by heredity, but there exists also a constitution, which defines the distribution of powers among the branches that compose the government and fixes the limits of authority vested in each. The British constitution is partly written, as found in the great historical documents of English history, such as Magna Charta (1215), the Petition of Right (1628), and the Bill of Rights (1689);[[63]] and partly unwritten, consisting of precedents and customs which are recognized as authoritative. The constitutions of the other monarchies of Europe were made during the nineteenth century, and consequently they are younger than that of the United States.
In all the constitutional monarchies we find legislative bodies similar to our Congress. In every case the lower house is elected by the voters;[[64]] in England, the Austrian Empire, Italy, and Spain a number of the members of the upper house hold their position by hereditary right. In respect to legislation, therefore, the constitutional monarchies are all more or less republican in principle; that is, they all recognize the supreme authority of the people acting through their representatives.
An absolute monarchy is one in which the authority of the ruler is not held in check by a constitution or by a body of men elected by the people. No civilized country now has this form of government. Until recently there existed in Europe two absolute monarchies—Russia and Turkey.
The Cabinet System of Government.—In the relations existing between their legislative and executive departments, the European governments differ considerably from that of the United States. In our government we find, in theory at least, that these departments are separated; in the European governments there is a close relation of the legislative and executive branches, through some form of "cabinet responsibility." This "cabinet system" of government is found in the republics as well as in the constitutional monarchies of Europe, and in the self-governing British possessions, such as Canada and the Australian colonies.[[67]] The difference between the congressional and the cabinet systems is greater in appearance than in reality; for in the United States the President and his Cabinet exert considerable influence upon legislation.
| ENGLAND | GERMANY |
|---|---|
| Monarch-hereditary in the line fixed by Parliament | Emperor-hereditary King of Prussia |
| Cabinet Nineteen members[[65]] chosen by the Prime minister | Ministry Eight ministers, Chancellor at the head, appointed by the Emperor |
| Parliament Limit of term, seven years | Parliament Term, five years |
| House of Lords 586 members, holding seats (1) by heredity, (2) by appointment by crown, (3) by election[[66]] | Bundesrath or General
Council 58 members appointed by the German States |
| House of Commons 670 members elected by the people of England, Scotland, and Ireland | Reichstag or
Diet of the Realm 397 members elected by the people |
The Form and the Spirit of Government.—The study of other governments and the comparison of them with our own will teach us that the virtue of a government resides, not in its framework, but in its spirit. A government may be monarchical in form and republican in its practical workings. In England, and in others of the European monarchies, the will of the people is the law of the land. On the other hand, a government may be republican in form, and very unrepublican in its methods of operation. There are cities and States in our country where one man, the political boss, or a group of men, the political machine, dictates the course of legislation and controls the administration of the law. Here we find, in reality, not republican governments, but despotisms or oligarchies.