16. See, e.g., NASA's "Clickworkers" experiment, which used public volunteers to analyze Mars landing data, available at http://clickworkers.arc.nasa.gov/top.
17. Benkler, "Coase's Penguin," 11.
18. Free Software Foundation, http://www.gnu.ai.mit.edu/philosophy/free-sw.html.
19. Exhibit A: the Internet—from the software and protocols on which it runs to the multiple volunteer sources of content and information.
20. See, e.g., the Database Investment and Intellectual Property Antipiracy Act of 1996, HR 3531, 104th Cong. (1996); The Consumer Access Bill, HR 1858, 106th Cong. § 101(1) (1999); see also Council Directive 96/9/EC of the European Parliament and the Council of 11 March 1996 on the Legal Protection of Databases, 1996 Official Journal of the European Union, L77 (27.03.1996): 20-28.
21. See generally Julie E. Cohen and Mark A. Lemley, "Patent
Scope and Innovation in the Software Industry," California Law
Review 89 (2001): 1-58; see also Pamela Samuelson et al., "A
Manifesto Concerning the Legal Protection of Computer Programs,"
Columbia Law Review 94 (1994): 2308-2431.
22. Uniform Computer Information Transactions Act, available at http://www.law.upenn.edu/bll/archives/ulc/ucita/2002final.htm.
23. 17 U.S.C. § 1201 (2002).
24. This point has been ably made by Pamela Samuelson, Jessica Litman, Jerry Reichman, Larry Lessig, and Yochai Benkler, among others. See Pamela Samuelson, "Intellectual Property and the Digital Economy: Why the Anti-Circumvention Regulations Need to Be Revised," Berkeley Technology Law Journal 14 (1999): 519-566; Jessica Litman, Digital Copyright: Protecting Intellectual Property on the Internet (Amherst, N.Y.: Prometheus Books, 2001); J. H. Reichman and Paul F. Uhlir, "Database Protection at the Crossroads: Recent Developments and Their Impact on Science and Technology," Berkeley Technology Law Journal 14 (1999): 793-838; Lawrence Lessig, "Jail Time in the Digital Age," New York Times (July 30, 2001), A17; and Yochai Benkler, "Free as the Air to Common Use: First Amendment Constraints on Enclosure of the Public Domain," New York University Law Review 74 (1999): 354-446. Each has a slightly different focus and emphasis on the problem, but each has pointed out the impediments now being erected to distributed, nonproprietary solutions. See also James Boyle, "Cruel, Mean, or Lavish? Economic Analysis, Price Discrimination and Digital Intellectual Property," Vanderbilt Law Review 53 (2000): 2007-2039.
25. William W. Fisher III, "Property and Contract on the Internet," Chicago-Kent Law Review 73 (1998): 1217-1218.