[L] I no longer believe in this “great submergence.” The marine shells in the high-level drift-deposits of our islands are “erratics,” carried by the ice-sheet which occupied the basin of the Irish Sea. That the low-grounds were submerged but the amount of the submergence has not been ascertained; probably it did not exceed a few hundred feet.
It is not necessary for my present purpose to enter further into the evidence of interglacial conditions. The latest northern ice-sheet was preceded by a long epoch of mild and genial conditions, during which elephants and hippopotami ranged north as far at least as Yorkshire; while middle Germany, as we know from the testimony of its interglacial deposits, enjoyed a similar delightful climate. And yet the immediately preceding glacial epoch had seen all those fertile regions covered with an ice-sheet that extended south as far as the fiftieth parallel of latitude. Now the question with which I am at present concerned is the extent of the latest general glaciation. Did the last great ice-sheet reach as far south as its predecessor? It certainly did not. Its bottom-moraine has now been mapped out and distinguished from that of the older ice-sheet, and we know that it does not extend so far south as the latter. It is entirely absent over all the region to the west of the River Elbe, from near Dresden to Hamburg and the coast of Holland.[M] So that western Germany and Holland, which were covered by ice during the epoch of greatest glaciation, were not invaded by the ice-sheet underneath which the upper boulder-clay was accumulated. This latest ice-sheet, however, overwhelmed all Mecklenburg and Mark Brandenburg, and streamed south nearly as far as Saxony; its southern margin extended east through Silesia, by Liegnitz and Breslau, into Poland and Russia. But the precise line it followed in the latter country has yet to be ascertained. We may surmise, however, that it nowhere reached so far south or east as the ice-flow of the earlier epoch. I may add that the southern termination of the latest ice-sheet is in many places marked out by heaps, mounds, and ridges of earthy sand, gravel, rolled stones, and erratics; in short, by terminal moraines. These, however, are frequently highly degraded and washed down.
[M] Klockmann, Jahrb. der k. preuss. geol. Landesanstalt für 1883, p. 330.
Of the extension of glacier-ice in the British Islands at the epoch in question I shall only say that the glaciation of Scotland was hardly, if at all, less extensive than during the climax of the Ice Age. Ireland, too, appears to have been almost as thickly mantled; but the ice-sheet that covered England and Wales did not extend so far south as that of the penultimate glacial epoch, a considerable area in East Anglia and the midland counties remaining apparently free from invasion. The Scandinavian and British ice-sheets, however, again coalesced upon the floor of the North Sea.
III.
The Results of Fluvio-glacial Action in Europe.
The third question which I now proceed to consider is the result produced by the rivers and torrents of the Ice Age. This, I am aware, is a wide subject, and one upon which much has been written. But there are a few points which may be advantageously discussed for the purpose of bringing into prominent view the conditions which obtained in the river-valleys of Europe during the last great extension of glacier-ice.
A little consideration will serve to convince one that the intense glacial conditions that obtained in our Continent during the cold epochs of the glacial period were due to a low temperature, combined with excessive snow-fall. The winters, we can have no doubt, must have been prolonged and severe. But mere low temperature will not account for the enormous precipitation of snow. For this, great evaporation was required. And we are therefore forced to admit that the direct heat of the sun in summer must have been greater than it is in the same regions at the present day. Now, if this were really the case (and I do not see how otherwise the facts can be explained), then we ought to meet with evidence of swollen rivers, torrents, and widespread inundations everywhere outside of the glaciated areas. And this is precisely what we do find. Immense accumulations of coarse gravels are widely spread over all the valleys that head in regions which were formerly the sites of snow-fields and glaciers. These gravels are of such a character and are so distributed as to make it certain that they could not have been transported to and deposited in their present positions by rivers like those which now wind their way down the valleys of middle Europe. Still more remarkable are the enormous sheets of loam which are spread over much wider areas and reach to more considerable heights than the gravels. The origin of the gravels is sufficiently evident; they are simply the coarser detritus, swept along by the enormously flooded rivers of the glacial period, and meet with their analogues in the torrential gravels of modern glacier-valleys in the Alps and other elevated regions. The more widely-spread loams, according to the opinion of most glacialists, represent the finer mud and silt deposited from the muddy waters of the same period. But the height to which such gravels and loams ascend is so great that those who hold them to be of fluvio-glacial origin have found it difficult to maintain this view. Some writers, indeed, who have not sufficiently considered the weight of the evidence in its favour, have set it aside, and boldly suggested all kinds of wonderful hypotheses in its place. One imaginative author, for example, believes the wide-spread loams to be of volcanic origin, while another finds in the same deposits strong evidence of the Deluge. By a well-known and experienced observer, the famous löss of middle Europe is considered to be an Æolian accumulation—that is to say, a wind-blown deposit—the result of long-continued or frequently-repeated dust-storms. This is the opinion of Baron Richthofen, whose great work on China is so justly esteemed. He infers that at the time of the formation of our löss central Europe was a dry desiccated region, just as wide areas in central Asia are in our own day. He does not attempt to show us, however, how such climatic conditions could ever obtain in Europe. In point of fact, the geographical conditions of our Continent have not changed materially since Pleistocene times, and the presence of the wide Atlantic Ocean, that laves all our western shores, is of itself sufficient to preclude the possibility of such a climate having obtained in middle Europe. Richthofen’s theory likewise fails to account for the geographical distribution of the löss, and for many facts relating to its geology. Only one of these last shall I mention. The löss is intimately associated with accumulations, the glacial and fluvio-glacial origin of which cannot be doubted. It belongs, in fact, to the glacial series, and was laid down at a time when vast snow-fields and ice-sheets existed, and when it is quite impossible that a dry climate could have characterised any part of our Continent. In common with most geologists, I believe that the löss is simply an inundation-mud, deposited in temporary lakes and over flooded areas during the summer meltings of the snow- and ice-fields; and I shall now try to show how the occurrence at high levels of gravels and such loams as the löss may be accounted for without having recourse to volcanic action or to winds, or even to the Deluge. I shall invoke no agencies other than those which we are perfectly well assured were in full operation during the Ice Age.
Now, I ask you, in the first place, to bear in mind that while a glacial epoch continued, extreme conditions could not have been restricted to the areas undergoing glaciation. There is abundant evidence, indeed, to show that heavy, snows occasionally covered other regions, and that in such places severe frosts acted upon the rocks and soils even of the low-grounds. Need we wonder if at a time when the northern ice-sheet approached the fiftieth parallel of latitude in middle Europe, when almost every mountain-group of central and southern Europe had its snow-fields and glaciers—need we wonder if at such a time the climate of wide areas outside of the glaciated tracts was extremely ungenial? The more closely the superficial accumulations of such areas are studied, the more clearly do we perceive in them the evidence of cold and humid conditions. Try, then, to picture to yourselves the probable aspect of those regions during a glacial epoch. Immediately south of the northern ice-sheet deep snows must have buried large tracts of country, and such snows may have endured often for long years, notwithstanding the great melting that took place in summer. Even much further south, as in Spain and Italy, deep snows would cover the lesser hills and hill-ranges, while frost would act energetically in many a district where such action is now either inconsiderable or unknown. Such being the general conditions that must have obtained in the non-glaciated areas, let us very briefly consider what the results of such conditions must necessarily have been. Every one has noticed, during the more or less rapid melting of snow in winter and early spring, that our streams and rivers are then much muddier than when in summer and autumn they are swollen by heavy rains. This of course is due to the action of frost, by means of which rocks are disintegrated and soils are broken up and pulverised, so that when thaw supervenes, the superficial covering becomes soaked with moisture like a sponge. To such an extent does this take place, that one may often see the saturated soil creeping, slipping, and even flowing down the slopes. The effect of mere thaw is of course much intensified when the water derived from melting snows is present. Rills and tiny brooks then become converted into dark muddy torrents, and enormous quantities of fine-grained detritus are eventually swept into the rivers. The rivers rise in flood and inundate their plains, over the surface of which considerable deposits of loam and silt often accumulate. We cannot doubt that similar but much more intense action must have taken place over very wide regions in Europe during a glacial epoch. Such having necessarily been the case, we are not required to suppose that the löss and similar loams have been deposited entirely by rivers flowing from glaciers. It is doubtless true that most of the rivers headed in those days in glacier regions, and must in consequence have been highly discoloured with glacial mud, and probably a very large proportion of the loams in question consists of the fine flour of rocks—the result of glacial grinding. But the action of frost and thaw and melting snow upon the low-grounds, such as I have described, cannot be ignored, and seems to have played a more important rôle than has yet been recognised. I think it helps us better to explain the well-known fact that land-shells are more or less commonly distributed through the löss. One can readily understand, at all events, how snail-shells might be swept down the slopes of the land at the time of the spring thaws, and how large numbers might find their way eventually into the swollen glacial rivers. I have often observed, during the melting of snow and the thawing of soils, quantities of snail-shells in the very act of being swept into our brooks and rills. And we are all familiar with the fact that, after a spring-flood has subsided, snail-shells, along with vegetable débris, are often plentifully stranded upon the valley-slopes and flood-plains of our rivers.
Admitting, then, that the löss and similar accumulations are simply inundation-loams formed at a time when glaciers were discharging immense volumes of muddy water, and when the low-grounds were liable every summer to the denuding action of melting snows, and so forth, I have yet to account for the fact that these supposed inundation-loams sometimes occur at a height of 100 feet, or even of 300 feet, above the present levels of the rivers. Two theories have been advanced in explanation, each of which seems to me to contain an element of truth. It has, in the first place, been maintained, as by Prestwich, that the löss at the higher levels was probably deposited long before the rivers had excavated their channels to their present depths. Thus, during flood, they would be enabled to overflow tracts which they could not possibly have reached when they had deepened their valleys to a much greater degree. But while we must fully admit that the erosion effected by the rivers of the Pleistocene or Glacial period was excessive, yet we find it difficult or impossible to believe that great valleys, several miles in width, and two or three hundred feet in depth, were excavated in hard Devonian and other equally durable rocks by the swollen and active rivers of the Ice Age. And although it is extremely probable that the löss at the highest levels is older than the similar deposit at the lowest levels of such a valley as the Rhine, yet this does not get us out of our difficulty.