The other view to which I have alluded takes little or no account of river-erosion, but maintains that the floods of the Ice Age were sufficiently great to reach the highest levels at which river-gravels and loams occur. It is likely enough that, under present conditions, we can form but a very inadequate idea of the vast bodies of freshwater which formerly swept down our valleys, but we may be pardoned if we express our inability to conceive of our European rivers flowing with a breadth of many miles, and a depth of two or three hundred feet.
A few years before his death, Mr. Darwin made a suggestion to me, which I think gives us the true solution of the problem. He thought that during an Ice Age great beds of frozen snow might have accumulated over the low-grounds outside of the glaciated areas (in the manner I have already described), and that many valleys might have been filled to a considerable depth during a large part of the year with blown snow, afterwards congealed. In autumn, when the running water failed, the lines of drainage might in many cases be more or less choked, and it would be a mere chance whether the drainage, together with gravel, sand, and mud, would follow precisely the same lines during the next summer. Such action being repeated year after year, it might well happen that many river-valleys might become largely filled with rudely alternating layers of frozen snow and fluviatile detritus. And if this were so, the flooded rivers in summer would be enabled to overflow much wider and more elevated tracts than they could otherwise have reached. As the climate became less excessive, we can conceive of the frozen snows gradually melting, and of river-detritus being deposited at lower and lower levels in the valleys.
The probability of such frozen masses having choked up valleys and impeded the drainage during the Ice Age is not a mere plausible conjecture. In the far north of Alaska—in a region which was certainly not overflowed by the North American ice-cap—extensive sheets of ice occur, more or less deeply buried under thick soil. Nor can there be much doubt that these ice-masses date back to the Glacial period itself, seeing that in the soils which overlie them we meet with remains of the mammoth and other contemporaneous mammalian forms. Here, then, we have direct proof of the fact of frozen snow and ice having accumulated in the hollows of the land outside of the glaciated areas.[N]
[N] I have given Mr. Darwin’s views, and discussed the origin of the Pleistocene fluvio-glacial deposits at some length in Prehistoric Europe, chaps, viii. and ix. To this work I refer for detailed geological evidence in support of the view advocated above.
Now, if such conditions existed in the valleys of middle Europe, the widespread loss of those regions is readily accounted for. The occurrence of irregular sheets and shreds of gravel and loam at heights of more than a hundred feet above a valley-bottom offers no difficulty—it is in fact precisely the kind of phenomenon we might have expected. We are therefore not required to go out of our way to dream about impossible volcanic action, or to call upon the winds of heaven to help us, or upon the waters of the Deluge to float us out of our difficulties. But while I believe the views I have now advocated sufficiently account for the appearances presented by the ancient valley-gravels and loams of central Europe, there are two very considerable areas of löss which require some further explanation. The first of these is that broad belt of löss which extends from west to east across the plains of northern Germany, and the northern boundary of which coincides with the limits reached by the last great ice-sheet, from which it spreads south to the foot-hills of the Harz, and other mountains of middle Europe. Here we have a sheet of löss which bears no apparent relation to the valley-systems of the region in which it occurs. But the fact of its northern boundary being coincident with the terminal front of the last great northern ice-sheet at once suggests its origin. It is evident that this ice-sheet must have blocked the rivers flowing north, and dammed back their waters.[O] A wide sheet of muddy water must therefore have extended east and west over the very area which is now covered by the belt of löss in question. This temporary lake would doubtless be subject to great alternations of level—a portion draining away perhaps under the ice-sheet—but the water would for the most part make its way westward, and eventually escape into the English Channel. From the waters of this great lake, fed by many large glacial rivers, abundant precipitation of loam and silt must have taken place.
[O] The late Mr. Belt, as is well known, was of opinion that all the rivers flowing north in Europe and Asia were dammed back by a great Polar glacier, and that all the low-tracts in the northern portions of the two continents were thus covered by wide inland seas of freshwater. As I do not believe that such a Polar ice-cap existed during the Glacial period, I cannot agree with Mr. Belt that the alluvial plains of northern Siberia mark the sites of ice-dammed lakes.
The second and by far the most extensive sheet of löss in Europe is the so-called “black earth,” or “tchernozem,” with which such enormous tracts in southern Russia are covered. This widespread löss—for such it really is—I have elsewhere tried to show consists of the flood-loam and inundation-muds laid down by the water escaping along the margin of the northern ice-sheet, which discharged its drainage in the direction of the Black Sea, its black colour being due to the grinding down and pulverising of the black Jurassic shales which extend over such wide regions in middle Russia.
IV.
The Extent of Glaciation in North America.
The various phenomena of glaciation which go to prove that a great ice-sheet formerly covered a wide region in northern Europe are developed on a still more extensive scale in North America. Smoothed and striated rock-surfaces, crushed and dislocated rock-masses, and enormous accumulations of morainic débris and fluvio-glacial detritus, all combine to tell the same tale. The morainic accumulations of North America have been distributed upon the same principles as the similar deposits of our own Continent. Boulder-clay of precisely the same character as that of Scotland and Scandinavia, of Switzerland and north Italy, covers vast tracts in the low-grounds of the British Possessions and the northern States of the Union, where it forms enormous sheets, varying in thickness from 30 or 50 up to 100 feet or more. In the rough Laurentian high-lands, however, it is more sparingly developed, and the same is the case in the hilly regions of New England. In short, it thickens out upon the low-grounds, and thins off upon the steeper slopes, while it attains its greatest thickness and forms the most continuous sheets in the country that lies south of the great lakes.