From the south to the north of this island, there are, in many places, the most evident marks of the sea having been upon a higher level on the land; this height seems to me to amount to about 40 or 50 feet perpendicular at least, which the land must have been raised. Some of those facts may now be mentioned.
Upon the banks of the Thames, I have found sea shells in the travelled soil a considerable height above the level of the sea. In low Suffolk there are great bodies of sea shells found in the soil which the farmers call crag, and with it manure their land. I do not know precisely the height above the sea; but I suppose it cannot exceed 100 feet. In the Frith of Forth there are, in certain places, particularly about Newhaven, the most perfect evidence of a sea bank, where the washing of the sea had worn the land, upon a higher level than the present. The same appearance is to be found at Ely upon the Fife coast, where the sea had washed out grottos in the rocks; and above Kinneel, there is a bed of oyster shells some feet deep appearing in the side of the bank, about 20 or 30 feet above the level of the sea, which corresponds with the old sea banks. I have seen the same evidence in the Frith of Cromarty, where a body of sea shells, in a similar situation, was found, and employed in manuring the land. There are many other marks of a sea beach upon a higher level than the present, but I mention only those which I can give with certainty.
We have been considering an extensive country more or less covered with gravel; such is England south of Yorkshire; both upon the east and west sides of the island. This country having no high mountainous part in the middle, so as to give it a considerable declivity towards the shores and rivers, the gravel has remained in many places, and in some parts of a considerable thickness. But in other parts of the island, where the declivity of the surface favours the transportation of gravel by the currents of water, there is less of the gravel to be found in the soil, and more of the fragments of stone not formed into gravel. Still, however, the same rule holds with regard to tracing the gravel from its source, and finding particular substances among the gravel of every region, in proportion to the quantity of country yielding that substance, and the vicinity to the place from whence it came.
Here are principles established, for the judging of a country, in some respects, from a specimen of its gravel or travelled stones. In this manner, I think, I can undertake to tell from whence had come a specimen of gravel taken up any where, at least upon the east side of this island. Nor will this appear any way difficult, when it is considered, that, from Portland to Caithness or the Orkneys, there are at least ten different productions of hard stone in the solid land which are placed at proper distances, are perfectly distinguishable in the gravel which is formed of them, and with all of which I am well acquainted. Let us suppose the distance to be 600 miles, and this to be divided equally into 10 different regions of 60 miles each, it must be evident that we could not only tell the region, which is knowing within 60 miles of the place, but we could also tell the intermediate space, by seeing an equal mixture of the gravel of two contiguous regions; and this is knowing within 30 miles of the place. If this be allowed, it will not seem difficult to estimate an intermediate distance from the different proportions of the mixed gravel. This is supposing the different regions to be in all respects equal, which is far from being in reality the case; nevertheless, a person well acquainted with the different extent and various natures of those regions, may make allowances for the different known circumstances that must have influenced in those operations, although it is most probable there will be others which must be unknown, and for which he can make no allowance.
The author of the Tableaux de la Suisse has entered very much into this view of things; he has given us some valuable observations in relation to this subject, which I would here beg leave to transcribe[7].
Footnote 7:[ (return) ] Discours sur l'Histoire Naturelle de la Suisse, p. 27.
«Nous avons dit précédemment que c'étoit entre Orfière et Liddes que nous avions vu les derniers granites roulés, on n'en rencontre plus dans tout le reste de la route jusqu'au haut du Mont St. Bernard. Les rochers qui dominent ce sommet ne sont pas composés de granites, et quoiqu'on ne puisse aborder jusqu'à leur plus grande élévation, on peut juger de leurs espèces, par les masses qui s'en précipitent. D'où peuvent donc provenir ces masses roulées de granites qui se trouvent jetés et répandus sur le penchant et au bas de ce mont? Il y a peut-être quelque montagne ou rocher de granite que nous n'avons pas été à portée de voir: il faudroit plus d'un mois pour faire un pareil examen et parcourir les montagnes environnantes, et faute de pouvoir parvenir à certains sommets, examiner scrupuleusement les fonds pour juger des hauts. De pareilles recherches sont plus difficiles et plus longues qu'on ne le croit communement quand on veut réellement voir et observer. Beaucoup de vallons sont comblés à des hauteurs prodigieuses, par les amas et les débris provenant des montagnes supérieures: ils cessent d'être des vallons, pour former ou faire partie de montagnes. Ces déplacement et des bouleversemens, changeant la direction et le courant des torrens, entraînent dans des parties bien opposées des débris qu'on croiroit devoir chercher et trouver ailleurs. On seroit induit en erreur, en voulant suivre toujours le cours actuel des eaux qui descendent des montagnes. Ce n'est pas dans cette occasion seul mais l'Allemagne, la Corse, la Sardaigne, et beaucoup de pays de hautes montagnes, nous out fourni également des exemples de masses de rochers roulés de différentes espèces dont il n'existoit pas de rochers pareils, dans toutes les parties élevées environnantes, à plusieurs lieues, à plusieurs journées de chemin, et souvent totalement inconnus dans les pays d'alentour. Si nous avons remarqué les même espèces de rochers faisant corps, et attachés au sol, à une ou plusieurs lieues de distance; nous avons vu souvent que des montagnes plus hautes étoient entre ces masses roulées et les rochers, d'ou on auroit pu supposer qu'elles ont été arrachées: il repugne à croire que des masses, d'un poids prodigieux, ayent été transportées et roulées en travers d'un vallon profond, pour remonter et passer de l'autre côté d'une montagne. Nous abandonnons, a ceux qui travaillent dans le cabinet, à l'arrangement du globe, la recherche des moyens que la nature a employé pour produire de pareils effets. Nous nous contenterons, ainsi que nous avons promis, de rendre compte de ce que nous avons vu et observé, et d'engager ceux qui auront la facilité de faire des remarques analogues de constater leurs observations en indiquant toujours les lieux fidèlement, ainsi que nous le faisions pour la Suisse.»
Here the experience of our naturalist amounts to this, that, in those operations by which the solid land is wasted, and the hard materials worn by attrition and transported, it is not always evident from whence had come every particular body of stone or mineral which had travelled by means of water; nor the particular route which, in descending from a higher to a lower place, the protruded body had been made to take, although, in general, these facts may be discovered without much difficulty. Now, this state of things is no other than the natural consequence of the great wasting of the surface and solid parts of our land, and the unequal degradation of this surface, by which means the shape of the earth is so changed, that it would often be impossible, from the present state, to judge of the course in which many bodies had been travelled by water.
M. de Saussure has described a very curious appearance of this kind: It is the finding the travelled materials of Mont Blanc, or fragments detached from the summit and centre of the Alps, in such places as give reason to conclude that they had passed through certain openings between the mountains of the Jura. This is a thing which he thinks could not happen according to the ordinary course of nature; he therefore ascribes this appearance to some vast debacle, or general flood, which had with great impetuosity transported all at once those heavy bodies, in the direction of that great current, through the defiles of the Alps, or the openings of those mountains.
In giving this beautiful example of the wasting and transporting operations of this earth, this naturalist overlooks the principles which I would wish to inculcate; and he considers the surface of the earth, in its present state, as being the same with that which had subsisted while those stones had been transported. Now, upon that supposition, the appearances are inexplicable; for, How transport those materials, for example, across the lake of Geneva? But there is no occasion to have recourse to any extraordinary cause for this explanation; it must appear that all the intervening hollows, plains, and valleys, had been worn away by means of the natural operations of the surface; consequently, that, in a former period of time, there had been a practicable course in a gradual declivity from the Alps to the place where those granite masses are found deposited. In that case, it will be allowed that there are natural means for the transportation of those granite masses from the top of the Alps, by means of water and ice adhering to those masses of stone, at the same time perhaps that there were certain summits of mountains which interrupted this communication, such as the Jura, etc. through the openings of which ridges they had passed.