The natives of Australia (perhaps of Victoria), according to an old account, worship the heavenly bodies and think that natural causes are governed by certain constellations. They have names for these, and sing and dance to win the favour of the Pleiades, which are worshipped by one group as the giver of rain; should the rain be deferred, curses instead of blessings are bestowed on them[613]. The Euahlayi tribe thinks that the Pleiades bring frost and winter thunderstorms, and that the Milky Way by its change of position brings rain[614]. An old native, chief of the Gingi tribe, when the rain would not stop, turned to the souls of his dead friends in the Milky Way with certain charms, until they made the rain cease. The Milky Way is regarded as a stream with fertile banks[615].
These facts being so, there is nothing strange in an account which unfortunately comes from a writer whose evidence in other respects is open to grave doubt. We are told that Andy, a native of New South Wales, found the statement that the sun is the source of heat ridiculous, and said:—“If the sun makes the warm weather come in summer-time, why does he not make the winter warm, for he is seen every day?” The influence which produces heat, in the belief of the natives, accompanies the Pleiades. When these are visible at a certain altitude above the horizon, it is spring, begagewog; when they rise to their highest altitude, it is summer, winuga; when in autumn they sink down again towards the horizon, it is domda (‘autumn’); in winter they are barely visible or are lost to view altogether; it is then winter (magur), and cold. The ordinary stars have no kind of influence on the seasons, but simply the Pleiades[616]. The account agrees very well with what is otherwise known of the stellar science of the Australians, and is perfectly credible. A precisely similar story comes from the other side of the globe. At the beginning of the 18th century, when the Lapps were still heathens, one of the questions which a missionary among these people put to them about their gods was:—“Have you prayed the Pleiades to warm the weather?” In accordance with this a Lapp myth relates that a servant driven out on a very cold night by a cruel master was saved by the Pleiades. One of the Lapp names for these stars, which evidently points to this idea, is ‘the Sheep-skins’[617]. The Greeks had the same belief in Sirius as the cause of the summer heat.[618]
From this belief in the stars as causes of the natural phenomena it is but a short step to attempt to draw from the manner of their appearance conclusions as to the kind of phenomenon caused by them. To the Bakongo the Pleiades are the guardians of the rain, and when they are clearly to be seen at the beginning of the rainy season the people expect a good season, i. e. sufficient but not too much rain[619]. The Nandi of British East Africa know by the appearance or non-appearance of the Pleiades whether they may expect a good or a bad harvest[620]. The Guarayu of S. America believe that when the Pleiades at their reappearance are surrounded by a circle, it is a good omen: but if this circle is wanting, all must die[621]. In Macedonia the Pleiades are called ‘the Clucking or Brooding Hen’ (ἡ κλωσσαριά); their setting announces the advent of winter, and from the accompanying conditions omens are drawn as to the quantity of the forthcoming crop and the fertility of the cattle. If the constellation sets in a cloudy sky, this portends a rich harvest[622]. Similar weather-rules and prognostications are found in abundance in modern European folk-lore and in the so-called peasants’ calendars. The origin in the popular astrological beliefs of antiquity is usually taken for granted. It is true that astrology, especially under Mohammedan influence, has penetrated very deeply even among little civilised peoples such as the negroes of Central Africa and the Malays of the Indian Archipelago; but I see no cogent reason for finding in the above-mentioned world-wide examples of a belief in the influence of the stars upon natural phenomena any influence of that astrology which derives from ancient Babylon. Rather do these myths and traditions seem to afford an analogy to the initial stages of the Babylonian astrology, and to shew that the whole vast system of astrology had its root in primitive thinking. And the Babylonian prognostications from stars and sky remained, until a very late period, quite primitive. These observations cannot be followed up further: astrology and its origins lie outside the limits of the present study.
It has been shewn, then, that even among the most primitive peoples of the globe the stars are known, observed, considered, and used for the determination of time—the Pleiades, indeed, first and foremost, but other constellations as well; of the not nearly so frequent determination of the advance of night from the motions of the stars we have already spoken in chapter I. There is however a difference that should not be neglected between this method of determining time and the time-indications from natural phases. So far as I have been able to discover, the stars are never used in a narrative, i. e. where the date of any familiar event is to be given, but only where practical rules for the constantly recurring occupations and labours are concerned, and also for the festivals. The method therefore does not apply to the historical event in the wider sense, but only to the reiterated event the recurrence of which is empirically known. The consciousness of a fixed and constant order is therefore impressed upon the mind of primitive man much more powerfully by the eternal revolution of the constellations than by the variation of the seasons.
CHAPTER V.
THE MONTH.
The course of the sun determines the variation between day and night, and causes the natural phases of the year. From the position of the sun the times of the day can be given with ease and certainty, but not so the seasons of the year,—to the exceptions I shall recur in chapter XII. From the fixed stars the hours of the night can be determined, and still more frequently are the seasons regulated by them. But this kind of time-determination necessarily refers to points of time, and not to periods. Only for one or two days has the star the position which serves for the determination of time. No division of the year into parts can be carried out by this method, the most that can be done is to regulate the already existing divisions by it.
As well as the sun and the fixed stars the moon appears in the heavens. It does not entirely vanish before the sunlight like the fixed stars, in the night-time its light eclipses that of the smaller stars. Its shape, the strength of its light, and the time of its appearance vary quite perceptibly from day to day. As long as the human race has existed, man’s attention must have been drawn to the moon. The course of the moon, thanks to the rapid revolution of the planet round the earth, forms a shorter unit, which steps in between day and year. The shorter interval of time defined by it, unlike the too lengthy period of the year, is easily kept in mind and taken in at a glance. This unit has further its peculiar characteristics. In the first place it has nothing to do with the natural phases conditioned by the course of the sun: it is in fact incommensurable with the seasons. In the second place it immediately obtrudes itself into notice as a unit. The time-reckoning according to the moon is in its nature continuous. One moon follows another with a short interruption, to which at first little attention is paid: for compared with the 27–28 days in which the moon can be seen in the sky the 1–2 days in which it is invisible are little noticed. The phases of the moon represent a gradual waxing and waning, a continuous development. The principle of continuous time-reckoning is therefore suggested by the moon, in opposition to the time-indications from natural phases and from the stars.
The observation of the moon is often said to be the oldest form of time-reckoning. This statement involves a certain danger, viz. the overlooking of the fact that the time-indications from natural phases and from the stars—as I hope has been shewn above—are just as primitive and must be just as old. But if by time-reckoning the continuous principle and measure of time are implied the statement is in that sense true. The moon is indeed the first chronometer, and this fact is due to the nature of its concrete appearance, which draws attention to the duration, and not to the point, of time. And this, as always, is the starting-point: practically everywhere the month as a unit of enumeration or a measure is denoted by the same word as the moon. The linguistic distinction between ‘moon’ and ‘month’ only follows at a stage which primitive peoples still living have not yet reached. All peoples know the moon and use it for time-reckoning. Of the S. American Indians, who observe the stars so well, it is stated that the month is everywhere the natural division of time[623].
While the human mind therefore arrives only gradually at the conception of the year, the month is already given by the natural phenomenon. Consequently it is only to be expected that it should be expressly stated that the revolution of the moon determines the greatest measure of time[624], and that we should find peoples who can count reckoning by months and not by years. Thus, for example, it was often said in southern Nigeria: “I sold this canoe to him eight moons ago”[625]. As in the counting of the years a well-known event is used as a starting-point, so it is also with the months. In the New Hebrides they said:—“Two moons have gone since this or that event took place”[626]. But this principle has not prevailed in the counting of the months, since it gives too many months in the course of one human life, and since the months are drawn into another connexion, to which the following chapter is devoted. Only in one case is a reckoning of this nature common, viz. in pregnancy. Examples are superfluous, but I give at least one:—The Samoan woman looks at the moon and expects the beginning of menstruation at a quite definite position of that planet, each woman naturally having a different position of the moon in view. If menstruation does not take place then, she perceives that she is pregnant, and expects her confinement after ten moon-months[627].