No attention is paid at first to the number of days in the month: many primitive peoples cannot even count so far as thirty. A significant passage in a Ho text originating from a native runs:—“The months are reckoned from the moon (the same word is used for both), which stands in the sky. When the moon appears, remains long in the heavens, and then again for a short time is invisible, we say that a month has just gone. We know nothing about the number of days constituting a month. When we see the moon and then it is lost again a month has gone”[628]. A native Basuto says that little regard is paid as to counting the number of days in any month, since the bulky moon itself fills up the deficiency[629]. When men begin to count the days great uncertainty at first prevails: in Buin, for example, the statements vary between 15 and 31 days[630]; the Caffre month is said to have 25 days. Apparently only the time during which the moon is visible is at first counted. So it is said of the Caffres that they count the month from the phases of the moon during its visibility, and that the days of its invisibility are not counted: the moon has gone to sleep[631]. For the Basuto on the other hand only expressions for the two days of the moon’s invisibility are mentioned: the first, ‘the moon has gone into the dark’, the second, ‘the moon is greeted by the apes’, since this animal can see the moon sooner than man[632]. The Ibo-speaking peoples also reckon only 28 days to the month[633], and so do the Dakota[634]. It is only natural that the days of the darkness should soon be included, so that the following month follows directly upon the preceding; many peoples say, like the Banyankole, that the month lasts 29 days: for 28 days the moon is visible, and for one day hidden[635]. As always, therefore, the concrete phenomenon is the starting point. Here, however, not only the varying shape of the moon, not only its phases, are taken into account, but also, as in the case of the sun and the stars, its position in the sky. On the analogy of the rising and setting of the stars the new moon can be described as the evening setting, the full moon as the evening rising or morning setting, and the disappearing of the moon as the morning rising of that planet. A description of this nature, of course without the above scientific terminology, does occur, but in isolated instances. In the above-mentioned Ho text a further passage runs:—“When the moon appears and comes nearer, we say ‘it stands overhead’. After this it stands in the middle (of the sky). When the moon does not rise until after night-fall we say that it ‘stands on the edge (of the sky)’. When it does not rise until very long after night-fall we say ‘it shines unto day-break’. When the moon is once more on the wane, it will not be long before another appears.” Other expressions are:—‘the moon falls upon the forest’, i. e. stands low on the horizon, ‘it sleeps in the open air’, when it is in the sky at day-break[636]. At the south of Lake Nyassa the day of the month is denoted by indicating the position of the moon in the sky at day-break[637]. Of the Seminole of Florida it is reported that the months seem to be divided simply into days, and that the latter are, at least in part, described by reference to the successive positions of the moon in the sky at sunset. When our informant asked a native how long he would remain at his present camp, he answered by pointing to the new moon in the west, and sweeping his hand from west to east to the spot where the moon would be when he should go home. He meant to answer, “About ten days hence”[638].
To indicate the day by the position of the moon in the sky is however exceptional, and it is just as exceptional for descriptions of the day according to the position of the moon to be consistently carried out. The Ewe tribes also have expressions which refer to the shapes of the moon. These different shapes have in general attracted most attention, and serve for time-reckoning. At first the phases of the moon are distinguished only roughly, but greater and greater refinement of observation is ever being attained, until every day of the moon’s revolution is described by a name, and the names not only refer to the phases of the moon but also indicate its position in the sky.
Among the different phases of the moon’s light two stand out with especial prominence—the first appearance of the crescent of the new moon in the evening twilight, and the full moon. Both events are joyfully greeted and celebrated among many peoples, in particular the appearance of the new moon, the full moon also, but not so often. The explanation of this fact must partly lie in the circumstance that the full moon does not suddenly appear like the new moon, but fills its disc gradually, so that the days of full moon are more numerous, instead of being one exactly determined day like the day of the new moon. Hence there may be a counting of the months in new moons instead of a continuous reckoning in moons, as when the natives of the Solomon Islands count the months which must elapse before the funeral feast by making a notch in a stick or a knot in a rope at the appearance of the new moon[639].
The hailing of the new moon with joy is wide-spread[640]. The Dieri of Australia relate that there was once no moon, so that the old men held a council and a Mura-mura gave them the moon; in order that they might know when to hold their ceremonies, he gave them a new moon at certain intervals[641]. Heathen Eskimos in West Greenland celebrate at every new moon a feast with a performance of the sorceror, an extinguishing of lamps, and the barter of women[642]. The Patagonians welcome the new moon by patting their heads and murmuring an incantation[643]. Certain tribes of North America at the eagerly expected appearance of the new moon uttered loud cries and stretched out their hands towards it[644]. The Natchez of Louisiana at every new moon celebrated a feast which took its name from the principal fruits reaped in the preceding moon, or from the animals that were usually hunted then[645]. In the villages of Port Moresby (British New Guinea) the people at the first sight of the new moon give a prolonged somewhat shrill cry which is taken up by all and repeated in chorus: there is no mention of any time-reckoning[646]. On the southern side of Dutch New Guinea we learn that the first sight of the new moon was signalised by a short sharp bark rather than a shout. Several times on the day following the first sight of the new moon our authority noticed that a spear decorated with white feathers was exposed in a conspicuous place in the village. The author states that he is unable to say whether this custom had any connection with the calendar[647]. In Buin at the appearance of the quarter (sic!) of the new moon the people immediately utter the ‘war-cry’, ‘so that the new moon may not break the cocoa-nuts’. When the new moon comes up, the people of Buin trill with their under-lip, plucking at it with the forefinger and at the same time sending out a high note (‘a’). In Lambutjo the people howl and strike themselves on the mouth with their hands, at the same time uttering ‘a’, so that a kind of quacking is heard. On the Gazelle Peninsula the natives put their forefingers in their mouths and trill a high ‘u’, the result being a gurgling noise[648].
The same custom recurs in Africa. When the Bushmen catch sight of the new moon they pray:—“Young Moon! Hail, Young Moon, hail, hail, Young Moon! Young Moon, speak to me, hail, hail, Young Moon! Tell me of something! Hail, hail! When the sun rises, Thou must speak to me, that I may eat something. Thou must speak to me about a little thing, that I may eat. Hail, hail, Young Moon!”[649]. The Bechuana watch most eagerly for the first glimpse of the new moon, and when they perceive the faint outline after the sun has set deep in the west, they utter a loud shout of kua! and vociferate prayers to it, e. g. “Let our journey with the white man be prosperous!”[650]. The Ba-Ronga always greet the apparition of the new moon with cheers. The first person who sees it shouts kengelekezee (kenge = ‘half-moon shaped’), and this exclamation is repeated from one village to another. According to a Nkuma informant the day of the new moon is shimusi, a day of rest. The appearance of the crescent was carefully examined. If the horns were turned towards the earth, this shewed that there was nothing to fear, the dangers of the month had been poured out. If the opposite was the case, it shewed that the moon was full of weapons and misfortunes[651]. As soon as the new moon is seen, the Banyankole of Uganda come out of their huts and clap their hands. Everyone lights a fire in front of his hut and lets it burn for four days continuously. A number of royal drums are brought out and beaten without cessation for four days[652]. The Wadschagga climb a hill in order to see the crescent properly, and pray at its appearance:—“One, two, three, four (the day of the new moon is reckoned as the fourth day of the month), give me peace, give me food, send me blessing, and drive want far away. O my moon, break him (my enemy) neck and throat!” Since in the evening so many curses are uttered, this day is also termed an evil day. Its peculiarities decide the character of the whole month. For this reason no one should go to rest on this evening hungry or only half-satisfied, or else he will be hungry the whole month long. The master of the house admonishes his wife:—“Day of the moon! Honour the moon, and go in quest of food for the children, that they may not go to sleep hungry every day.” On this day no legal business is done and no debts are paid. But whoever can manage to get his debt paid on that day will have luck and his possessions will increase[653]. This custom is of a highly developed order and exactly resembles the well-known ancient Roman and modern New Year superstition, in which moreover the new moon also plays a prominent part; one can hardly avoid suspecting foreign influence. At Nibo when the new moon comes out they salute it with:—“u-u, don’t let disease catch me, or a bad moon!”; the Ibo celebrate a children’s festival at the time of the new moon[654].
The full moon also gives rise to special feasts: half Africa dances in the light of the nights of full moon. The Bushmen, for example, never neglected the dance at the time of the new and full moon. Dancing began with the new moon and was continued at the full moon[655]. In Dahomey the festivals take place at full moon, the days being fixed by the native government[656]. This is also the case elsewhere. The people of Timor on the night of the full moon dance from night-fall till sunrise: the dancing songs are principally of an erotic character[657]. On the Nicobars at new and full moon feasts were celebrated in which great quantities of an intoxicating beverage prepared from the juice of the cocoa-palm were drunk[658]. The Celtic Iberians of ancient Spain assembled outside their gates on the nights of full moon and celebrated a feast and danced in honour of an unknown god[659]. Who can help thinking here of the well-known words of Tacitus about the Germans?—“Their meetings are, except in case of chance emergencies, on fixed days, either at new moon or full moon: such seasons they believe to be the most auspicious for beginning business”[660]. A fact is here mentioned to which we shall recur below, viz. that the feasts and religious festivals are often celebrated during the time of full moon. This is due not only to the full light of the moon but also to the world-wide idea that everything which is to prosper belongs to the time of the waxing moon, and above all to the days when it has reached its complete phase[661].
New moon and full moon, therefore, by the religious significance attached to them, prove themselves to have been the two phases which were first observed. It is certainly no mere accident that in a word-list of an Australian tribe, the Kakadu of North Territory, only terms for new moon and full moon exist (malpa nigeri and mirrawarra malpa respectively)[662]. Starting from these two phases, the whole period of the moon can be divided into two halves, formed by the waxing and the waning moon. The phases are the same in both halves, but follow one another in the inverse order. Hence they can be described by the same word, with an additional word for the half of the month: but this is only vouched for in one instance, viz. for the Mendalam Kayan of Borneo[663]. On the other hand this division is extremely common, especially among more highly developed peoples, in the counting of the days of the month, to which I return below. Quite primitive peoples cannot count so far as 15, or do so only with difficulty: instead of this they distinguish still further phases of the moon.
In the next place the crescent of the wasting moon is added, so that three phases are given: waxing, culmination, and waning. Thus the Andamanese call the new moon ogur-lo-latika, the full moon ogur-dah, and the waning moon ogur-boi-kal[664]. Another writer gives different names, no doubt for another tribe:—New moon = ‘moon-baby-small’, first quarter = ‘moon-big’, full moon = ‘moon-body’, last quarter = ‘moon-thin’[665]. The literal translation shews however that this author wrongly makes these phases equivalent to our quarters; the full moon and the third quarter are not identical. In reality, besides the full moon, two phases are distinguished during the time of the waxing moon, and only one when the moon is on the wane. The Indians of Pennsylvania distinguish by special names the new, the round (i. e. the full), and the waning moon: the last-named they call the half-round moon[666]. The Negritos of Zambales have periods corresponding to the phases of the moon: the new moon they call bay’-un bu’-an, the full moon da-a’-na bu’-an, the waning moon may-a’-mo-a bu’-an[667]. In Wuwulu and Aua there were words for the full moon, the waxing and the waning moon, and for the time of the moon’s invisibility[668]. This last is not a phase in the proper sense: as soon as it was recognised, however, it was natural that it should be introduced as equivalent to the phases and should thus complete the circle of the month.
In regard to the further development of the phases it is to be noted that this does not as a rule take place with any regularity, but the phases are more specialised during the period of the waxing than in that of the waning moon. The Karaya of Central Brazil were overjoyed to note the first appearance of the crescent. Apparently five phases of the moon are distinguished, for which our authority obtained the following names from an Indian:—First crescent, ahandu loita; not yet quite full moon, ahandu laläli; full moon, djulum läaläli; last crescent, ahandu aluläna; new moon, ikona. Of these ahandu laläli denotes a phase between half and full moon: ‘there are two moons’. Probably the bright and the dark moon are meant. This was confirmed for other Indians, but without its being possible to obtain any accurate account, says our authority. The theory however fits badly, since the earth-light disappears in the second quarter, but is very prominent in the first. The people however were themselves not clear as to the succession of the phases, they gave different orders and often corrected themselves[669].
The Hottentots call the just emerging, hardly yet perceptible crescent by a name which means ‘unripe’ and is also used to denote a premature fruit. The slender shining crescent, in which the moon as it were ‘revives’, is called by a name with that significance. The first two quarters have two names common to both of them, ‘the moon which becomes great or old’, and ‘the moon which becomes wise’. In the last quarter only the slender crescent is distinguished: it is called ‘the dying moon’[670]. In exceptional cases no name for the full moon is given, but we can hardly conclude that such a name was wanting. An Australian tribe of the North Territory calls the full moon igul, the half-moon idadad, and the crescent of the new moon wurdu[671]. The terminology in Central Australia is far richer:—atninja quirka utnamma = new moon, a. q. iwuminta = half-moon, a. urterurtera = three-quarter moon, a. aluquirta = full moon[672]. No terms whatever are given for the waning moon, but that they were entirely lacking is doubtful, though it is also to be doubted whether terms for the half and three-quarter moon cannot also be applied to the waning moon. It should be noted that in Central Australia, as the words shew, the new and the full moon are the original phases.