Attention. This is chiefly voluntary during the first six years. The child is capable of intense and long voluntary concentration. Avoid, so far as practicable, interrupting the baby’s staring or the child’s absorption in his play. The power of concentration thus developed will remain to be utilized with any interest. For necessary situations later, instead of attempting to force involuntary attention in an uninteresting problem, the more pedagogical way is to find the phase of interest in the problem; then concentration will follow automatically. To divert attention, provide some more absorbing interest. The child whose attention is absorbed should be spoken to only when his attention is required. From babyhood he should be trained to look directly at the person who is speaking to him, to obey the first time spoken to, and to follow a direction or command promptly without its repetition.
Observation. Children naturally observe action and striking or unusual characteristics. The range of objects and qualities they observe may be greatly increased by suggestion and by increasing their range of interests. Definiteness and accuracy of observation are increased by drawing, painting, modeling, and by any creative work, whether making a wagon or telling a story, particularly after six years of age. Alertness of observation is increased by games requiring quick action for defense, protection, or to win a point, as in “Drop the Handkerchief.” Observation of a larger number of details, as well as quickness and accuracy, are increased by asking for a description of persons or objects, of articles in a store window or on a table, or the imitation of a complex movement or series of movements seen only once.
Memory. Vividness of impression, variety of associations, and repetition are the factors in memorizing. The object or incident therefore must be clearly defined and must have the child’s full attention. Fewer repetitions will then be required. Obviously the child’s interest is a chief factor in attention. Energy is therefore economized by presenting data for memorizing when the child is interested and consequently ready for it. This applies very practically to formulæ, such as the alphabet, new words, mathematical tables. Rhythm and rhyme are easily memorized in childhood, and valuable facts put in this form will be retained longer. Such verbal memory is especially strong from two to seven years. This period should be utilized for teaching great thoughts, in poems and songs, especially those with emotional value, great songs and stories, chiefly in terms the child understands. The facts will be forgotten, but the emotions and ideals will remain with him through life. The period from nine to twelve is the time for much rote learning.
The greater the number of senses on which an impression is made, the greater will be the number of associations, and the more tenacious the memory of an object or incident. Different senses vary in the degree of retentiveness. Things heard about are forgotten soonest; things seen are remembered longer; things repeated or actions done remain longest in memory. A few repetitions on successive days are more effective than many repetitions on one day. Repeat as wholes, in units of stanzas or paragraphs, instead of lines or phrases.
Imagination. Develop vividness and wide range through exercise. In stories, put in colors and sounds. Ask questions about a story, to bring clear pictures of details. Encourage drawing, painting, and modeling of illustrations, and the dramatizing of stories. This is better training of imagination than to have stories already illustrated. Fanciful imagination is poetic, and some types of children are lacking in this. The child should be trained not only in visual, but also in auditory and motor imagery. Creation, whether of a story, song, building, picture, or game, requires and therefore trains imagination. Emotional imagination can be trained in part through dramatic play, in part through story-telling with this purpose. To be able to put one’s self in another’s place is a basis for sympathy, justice, and altruism. Between three and six years, when imagery is vivid and exact knowledge of the world is limited, many marvelous tales are told, with no intention of deception. This is normal and to be treated as fiction, in dealing with the child. Care should be taken that it does not develop into intentional deception for self-protection or vanity.
Reasoning. A regular and consistent régime is an early training in reasoning by association. Irregular or inconsistent régime brings confusion of thought. At five or six years of age, reason can be exercised by the allowing of choice, in situations where the child has some basis for passing judgment. Catering to the child’s choice in food or clothing, on the other hand, tends to develop whimsicality and dissatisfaction; asking him what he would like, or if he wouldn’t like, in any phase of his régime or play, has the same unfortunate result. If his choice is to be served, ask him directly to choose, and thereby let him use his own initiative in thought. Experimenting, taking things apart, are natural exercises in analysis, and therefore to be given widest possible opportunity. Building and constructing require synthetic reasoning, and finding the reasons for failures. Classifying of collections is an exercise in reasoning. The brain centers of abstract thought and reasoning are not developed until the adolescent period. Frequent exercises in judging what would be the best thing to do, or the best way to do, should be made a training in practical judgment in later childhood and youth.
Moral. Precepts and laws can be taught through stories, proverbs, and authoritative quotations. The child needs some of these, as a part of worldly wisdom. Much of this should be given during childhood. Every story and situation should be analyzed to see what will be its effect on the moral standards of the child. Moral action, however, further requires the training of the emotions, which are the springs of action, and the will, which holds emotions within the dictates of reason. The child’s moral ideals will be gathered more from the character he sees about him, and the stories told him, than from precepts. Good examples and daily practice are the chief methods of teaching morals and developing strong character. Respect for property and law can be taught by providing the child with property of his own, and regulating his life by an orderly régime. The care of his own property and responsibility for its orderliness will augment this.
Social virtues should be inculcated from infancy. The baby’s cry for attention is a deep-seated individualism. If encouraged, it makes later altruism more difficult. Self-reliance and self-dependence, for physical care and for amusement, should be systematically developed, instead of constant care, waiting upon, and amusement from others. Thoughtfulness for others can begin when the baby bites and slaps, though in play, by showing him how it feels; in the little child, by encouraging him to make little gifts or surprises as daily events. Courtesy, kindly criticism, loyalty to friends, freedom from gossip, he will learn by imitation of those about him. For training in generosity, he needs two or three other children about his own age, from the time he is three years old. Quarreling, which is an effort toward social adjustment, is to be expected throughout childhood, and many quarrels should be ignored, left to the children’s sense of fairness and generosity to adjust. Tattling, bullying, and resentful criticism should be shown in their own ugly light and thus discouraged. Group games, which the children naturally begin to play at six years, are a good schooling in the practice of justice, fairness, and social coöperation. Civic responsibility should be cultivated from early childhood by the practice of things that the children can do, such as keeping the sidewalks clear of litter instead of scattering that about. Patriotism should be taught chiefly as a responsibility, rather than a form of excitement or vanity. International sympathy can be cultivated through sympathetic acquaintance with children of other countries, through pictures and stories, dramatizing of their ways, through personal acquaintance, either directly or by correspondence. The roots of international peace, or of strife and militarism, are planted in the nursery.
Learning Self-Reliance and Regularity.