Some Salient Points in the Science of the Earth

by Sir John William Dawson

I had the pleasure of being present at the meeting of the British Association at Birmingham, in 1865: a meeting attended by an unusually large number of eminent geologists, under the presidency of my friend Phillips. I had the further pleasure of being his successor at the meeting in the same place, in 1886; and the subject of this chapter is that to which I directed the attention of the Association in my Presidential address. I fear it is a feeble and imperfect utterance compared with that which might have been given forth by any of the great men present in 1865, and who have since left us, could they have spoken with the added knowledge of the intervening twenty years.

The geological history of the Atlantic appeared to be a suitable subject for a trans-Atlantic president, and to a Society which had vindicated its claim to be British in the widest sense by holding a meeting in Canada, while it was also meditating a visit to Australia—a visit not yet accomplished, but in which it may now meet with a worthy daughter in the Australian Association formed since the meeting of 1886. The subject is also one carrying our thoughts very far back in geological time, and connecting itself with some of the latest and most important discussions and discoveries in the science of the earth, furnishing, indeed, too many salient points to be profitably occupied in a single chapter.

If we imagine an observer contemplating the earth from a convenient distance in space, and scrutinizing its features as it rolls before him, we may suppose him to be struck with the fact that eleven-sixteenths of its surface are covered with water, and that the land is so unequally distributed that from one point of view he would see a hemisphere almost exclusively oceanic, while nearly the whole of the dry land is gathered in the opposite hemisphere. He might observe that large portions of the great oceanic areas of the Pacific and Antarctic Oceans are dotted with islands—like a shallow pool with stones rising above its surface—as if the general depth were small in comparison with the area. Other portions of these oceans he might infer, from the colour of the water and the absence of islands, cover deep depressions in the earth's surface. He might also notice that a mass or belt of land surrounds each pole, and that the northern ring sends off to the southward three vast tongues of land and of mountain chains, terminating respectively in South America, South Africa, and Australia, towards which feebler and insular processes are given off by the antarctic continental mass. This, as some geographers have observed,[21] gives a rudely three-ribbed aspect to the earth, though two of the ribs are crowded together, and form the Eurasian mass or double continent, while the third is isolated in the single continent of America. He might also observe that the northern girdle is cut across, so that the Atlantic opens by a wide space into the Arctic Sea, while the Pacific is contracted toward the north, but confluent with the Antarctic Ocean. The Atlantic is also relatively deeper and less cumbered with islands than the Pacific, which has the highest ridges near its shores, constituting what some visitors to the Pacific coast of America have not inaptly called the "back of the world," while the wider slopes face the narrower ocean. The Pacific and Atlantic, though both depressions or flattenings of the earth, are, as we shall find, different in age, character, and conditions; and the Atlantic, though the smaller, is the older, and, from the geological point of view, in some respects, the more important of the two; while, by virtue of its lower borders and gentler slope, it is, though the smaller basin, the recipient of the greater rivers, and of a proportionately great amount of the drainage of the land.[22]

[21] Dana, "Manual of Geology," introductory part. Green, "Vestiges of a Molten Globe," has summed up these facts.

[22] Mr. Mellard Reade, in two Presidential addresses before the Geological Society of Liverpool, has illustrated this point and its geological consequences.

If our imaginary observer had the means of knowing anything of the rock formations of the continents, he would notice that those bounding the North Atlantic are, in general, of great age some belonging to the Laurentian system. On the other hand, he would see that many of the mountain ranges along the Pacific are comparatively new, and that modern igneous action occurs in connection with them. Thus he might see in the Atlantic, though comparatively narrow, a more ancient feature of the earth's surface; while the Pacific belongs to more modern times. But he would note, in connection with this, that the oldest rocks of the great continental masses are mostly toward their northern ends; and that the borders of the northern ring of land, and certain ridges extending southward from it, constitute the most ancient and permanent elevations of the earth's crust, though now greatly surpassed by mountains of more recent age nearer the equator, so that the continents of the northern hemisphere seem to have grown progressively from north to south.

If the attention of our observer were directed to more modern processes, he might notice that while the antarctic continent freely discharges its burden of ice to the ocean north of it, the arctic ice has fewer outlets, and that it mainly discharges itself through the North Atlantic, where also the great mass of Greenland stands as a huge condenser and cooler, unexampled elsewhere in the world, throwing every spring an immense quantity of ice into the North Atlantic, and more especially into its western part. On the other hand, he might learn from the driftage of weed and the colour of the water, that the present great continuous extension and form of the American continent tend to throw northward a powerful branch of the equatorial current, which, revolving around the North Atlantic, counteracts the great flow of ice which otherwise would condemn it to a perpetual winter.

Further, such an observer would not fail to notice that the ridges which lie along the edges of the oceans and the ebullitions of igneous matter which proceed, or have proceeded from them, are consequences of the settling downward of the great oceanic depressions, a settling ever intensified by their receiving more and more of deposit on their surfaces; and that this squeezing upward of the borders of these depressions into folds has been followed or alternated with elevations and depressions without any such folding, and proceeding from other causes. On the whole, it would be apparent that these actions are more vigorous now at the margins of the Pacific area, while the Atlantic is backed by very old foldings, or by plains and slopes from which it has, so to speak, dried away without any internal movement. Thus it would appear that the Pacific is the great centre of earth-movement, while the Atlantic trench is the more potent regulator of temperature, and the ocean most likely to be severely affected in this respect by small changes of its neighbouring land. Last of all, an observer, such as I have supposed, would see that the oceans are the producers of moisture and the conveyors of heat to the northern regions of the world, and that in this respect and in the immense condensation and delivery of ice at its north end, the Atlantic is by far the more active, though the smaller of the two.

So much could be learned by an extra-mundane observer; but unless he had also enjoyed opportunities of studying the rocks of the earth in detail and close at hand, or had been favoured by some mundane friend with a perusal of "Lyell's Elements," or "Dana's Manual," he would not be able to appreciate as we can the changes which the Atlantic has seen in geological time, and in which it has been a main factor. Nor could he learn from such superficial observation certain secrets of the deep sea, which have been unveiled by the sounding lead, the inequalities of the ocean basin, its few profound depths, like inverted mountains or table-lands, its vast nearly flat abyssmal floor, and the sudden rise of this to the hundred fathom line, forming a terrace or shelf around the sides of the continents. These features, roughly represented in the map prefixed, he would be unable to perceive.

Before leaving this broad survey, we may make one further remark. An observer, looking at the earth from without, would notice that the margins of the Atlantic and the main lines of direction of its mountain chains are north-east and south-west, and north-west and south-east, as if some early causes had determined the occurrence of elevations along great circles of the earth's surface tangent to the polar circles.