It must also be acknowledged, that there was a considerable party among the heathen that adhered to the sentiments of Epicurus, who denied the immortality of the soul, as supposing it to be material. And the Sadducees are represented, in scripture, as imbibing that notion; who are said to deny both angels and spirits, Acts xxiii. 8. In this respect they gave into his philosophy, as to what concerns his denying the immortality of the soul, or its existence in a future state[[134]]: But passing this by, we may observe, that notwithstanding all that has been said concerning this doctrine, by the better and wiser part of the heathen in their writings; yet their notions seem very defective, if we trace them farther than what concerns the bare separate existence of the soul; or, if they attempt to speak any thing concerning its happiness in a future state, they then discover that they know but little of this matter; and many of them, though they cannot deny the soul’s immortality, yet they seem to hesitate about it; and therefore we may say with the apostle, that life and immortality is brought to light through the gospel, 2 Tim. i. 10. that is, if we would be sure of the immortality of the soul, and know its state and enjoyments in another world, we must look farther than the light of nature for it: and in seeking for arguments in scripture, we shall find great satisfaction concerning this matter, which we cannot do from the writers before mentioned.
That some of the heathen were in doubt about this important truth, is very evident from their writings; for Plato himself[[135]], notwithstanding the many things which he represents Socrates as saying, concerning a state of immortality after death, endeavouring to convince his friend Cebes about that matter, and apprehending that he had so far prevailed in the argument, as that his antagonist allowed that the soul survived the body, but yet held the transmigration of souls into other bodies; this he seems to allow him, and adds, that it is uncertain whether the soul, having worn out many bodies, may not at last perish with one that it is united to[[136]]. And he farther says to him, that I must now die, and you shall live; but which of us is in the better state God only knows[[137]].
As for Aristotle, though, in many places of his writings, he seems to maintain the immortality of the soul; yet in others it appears that he is in doubt about it; and seems to assert, that neither good nor evil happens to any man after his death[[138]]. And the Stoicks, who did not altogether deny this doctrine; yet they supposed that in process of time, it would be dissolved[[139]]. And even Cicero himself, notwithstanding all that he says, by which he seems to give into this doctrine; yet sometimes speaks with great hesitation about it[[140]]. And notwithstanding what Seneca says concerning the immortality of the soul, as has been often before observed; yet he speaks doubtfully of it[[141]]; so that we must have recourse to scripture, and those consequences that are deduced from it, as well as those things that may be inferred from the nature of the soul to prove that it is immortal. And,
(1.) For the proof of this doctrine, let it be considered, that the soul is immaterial; which appears from its being capable of thought, whereby it is conversant about, and takes in ideas of things divine and spiritual, which no creature below man can do. It has a power of inferring consequences from premises, and accordingly is the subject of moral government, capable of conversing with God here, and expecting rewards or punishments from him hereafter; all this cannot be produced by matter or motion: As for matter, that is in itself altogether unactive; and when motion is impressed upon it, the only change that is made therein, is in the situation and contexture of its parts, which cannot give it life, sensation or perception, much less a power of judging and willing, or being conversant about things spiritual and immaterial.
(2.) This power of thinking or reasoning was not derived from the body to which it was united; for that which has not in itself those superior endowments, cannot communicate them to another: Its union with the soul cannot impart them to it; for whatever sensation the body has, (which is below the power of reasoning,) is derived from the soul, as appears from its being wholly destitute thereof, when the union between the soul and body is broken: And therefore, since those superior powers, or excellencies of the soul, are produced by another cause, we must conclude, that they are immediately from God: This evidently appears from scripture; the body of Adam was first formed, and then it is said, God breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, Gen. ii. 7. that is, he put into it that soul which was the spring and fountain of all living actions; and then it follows, man became a living soul: And it is considered as a peculiar display of the glory of God, that he formeth the spirit of man within him, Zech. xii. 2.
(3.) It follows from hence, that the dissolution of the body makes no alteration in the powers and faculties of the soul; which is not hereby rendered subject to death. For, as it did not derive those powers from the body, as was before observed, it could not be said to lose them in the ruin of the body: Thus our Saviour speaks of the soul as not being affected with those injuries that tend to the bodies destruction, when he says, Fear not them which kill the body, but are not able to kill the soul, Mat. x. 28.
(4.) We have a particular account in scripture, of the soul when separated from the body, as disposed of in a different way from it; it does not go down to the earth as the body does, from whence it was, but returns to God who gave it, Eccl. xii. 7. Its return to God supposes that it was accountable to him for its actions performed in the body, or the way and manner in which the faculties were exerted; and accordingly, when separate from it, it is represented as returning to God to give an account of its behaviour in the body, and to reap the fruits and effects thereof. And as it is said to return to God; so believers breathe forth their souls, and resign them by faith into the hand of God, as our Saviour expresses it, Father, into thy hands I commend my spirit, Luke xxiii. 46. or, as Stephen says, Lord Jesus receive my spirit, Acts vii. 59.
(5.) The soul’s immortality may be proved from the extent of the capacities thereof, and the small improvement men make of them in this world, especially the greatest part of mankind. What a multitude are there who never had the faculties of the soul deduced into act, in whom the powers of reasoning were altogether useless, while in this world; I mean in those whose souls are separated from their bodies as soon as they are born; others die in their childhood, before reason comes to maturity; and how great a part of the world live to old age, whose souls have not been employed in any thing great or excellent, in proportion to their capacities? Were these made in vain? or did God design, when he brought them into, or continued them either a longer or a shorter time in the world, that they should never be employed in any thing that is worthy of these noble faculties? Therefore we must conclude that there is another state, in which the soul shall act more agreeably to those capacities which it is endowed with.
(6.) This may be farther proved, not only from the natural desires, which there are in all men, of immortality; but more especially those desires, which the saints have, of enjoying some things in God, which cannot be attained in this life. The natural desire of immortality is what belongs to all: With what reluctancy does the soul and body part; which arises from a natural aversion to a dissolution, unless there be a well-grounded hope of a life of blessedness that shall ensue? Moreover there is not only a desire but an expectation of the soul’s living for ever, when separated from the body, in a state of happiness; which believers are made partakers of, as a peculiar blessing from God: Therefore we must conclude, that he that gave them will satisfy them; so that as they have a thirst after happiness, which is the effect of a supernatural power, they shall not be disappointed or destitute of it; which they must be if the soul does not survive the body.
(7.) The immortality of the soul may be proved from the justice of God as the Governor of the world. This divine perfection renders it necessary that rewards and punishments should be distributed according to men’s behaviour in this life. We observe, under a foregoing head, that man is supposed to be accountable to God, from the consideration of the spirit’s returning to him: And it also follows, from what was said under another head, concerning the soul’s being the subject of moral government: But this argument will be farther improved under a following answer, when we consider our Saviour’s coming to judge the world[[142]]. All the use therefore that we shall at present make thereof, is, that the soul being thus accountable to God, has reason to expect some peculiar marks of favour beyond what it receives in this world; or to fear some punishment as the consequence of crimes committed, from the hand of the supreme Judge of all: Thus it is said, God will render to every man according to his deeds, Rom. ii. 6. And elsewhere, Every one shall receive according to what he hath done in the body, whether it be good or bad, 2 Cor. v. 10. Now that which makes for our present argument, is, that the best men in the world do not receive those peculiar marks of divine favour, as to what respects their outward condition therein, as some of the vilest men often do: This the prophet Jeremiah takes notice of, when he says, Righteous art thou, O Lord, when I plead with thee; yet let me talk with thee of thy judgments: Wherefore doth the way of the wicked prosper? Wherefore are all they happy that deal very treacherously? Jer. xii. 1. And the Psalmist, when observing the prosperity of the wicked, says, They are not in trouble like other men; neither are they plagued like other men, Psal. lxxiii. 5. that is, not exposed to those rebukes of providence, as to what concerns outward things, as good men are.