Among the most beautiful ornaments of our gardens, is the bella-donna lily, amaryllis formosissima, the flower of which, composed of six petals, is of a deep red color, and in a strong light, or when the sun shines upon it, has an agreeable yellow lustre like gold. The first roots of it ever seen in Europe were procured in 1593, on board a ship which had returned from South America, by Simon de Tovar, a physician at Seville. In the year following, he sent a description of this flower to Clusius; and as he had at the same time transmitted some roots to Bernard Paludanus, and count d’Aremberg, the former sent a dried flower, and the latter an accurate drawing of it, to Clusius, who published it in 1601. One of the Robins gave, in 1608, a larger and more correct figure, which was afterwards copied by Bry, Parkinson, and Rudbeck; but a complete description, with a good engraving, was published in 1742, by Linnæus, who in 1737 gave to that genus the name by which they are known at present. Tovar received it from South America, where it was found by Plumier and Barrere, and at a later period by Thiery de Menonville. At first it was classed with the narcissus, and it was afterwards called lilio-narcissus, because its flower resembled that of the lily, and its roots those of the narcissus. It was named flos-Jacobæus, because some imagined that they discovered in it a likeness to the badge of the knights of the order of St. James in Spain, whose founder, in the fourteenth century, could not indeed have been acquainted with this beautiful amaryllis.

Another species of this genus is the Guernsey lily, amaryllis Sarniensis, which in the magnificence of its flower is not inferior to the former. This plant was brought from Japan, where it was found by Kæmpfer, and also by Thunberg, during his travels some years ago in that country. It was first cultivated in the beginning of the seventeenth century, in the garden of John Morin, at Paris, where it flowered, for the first time, on the 7th of October, 1634. It was then made known by Jacob Cornutus, under the name of narcissus Japonicus flore rutilo. After this it was again noticed by John Ray, an Englishman, in 1665, who called it the Guernsey lily, which name it still very properly bears. A ship returning from Japan was wrecked on the coast of Guernsey, and a number of the bulbs of this plant, which were on board, being cast on shore, took root in that sandy soil. As they soon increased, and produced beautiful flowers, they were observed by the inhabitants, and engaged the attention of Mr. Hatton, the governor’s son, whose botanical knowledge is highly spoken of by Ray, and who sent roots of them to several of his friends who were fond of cultivating curious plants. Of this elegant flower Dr. Douglass gave a description and figure in a small treatise published in 1725, which is quoted by Linnæus in his Bibliotheca, but not by Haller.

Of the numerous genus of the ranunculus, florists, to speak in a botanical sense, have obtained a thousand different kinds; for, according to the manner in which they are distinguished by gardeners, the varieties increase almost every summer.

The principal part of them, however, and those most esteemed, were brought to us from the Levant. Some were carried from that part of the world so early as in the time of the crusades; but most of them have been introduced into Europe from Constantinople since the end of the sixteenth century, particularly the Persian ranunculus, the varieties of which, if I am not mistaken, hold at present the first rank. Clusius describes both the single and the full flowers as new rarities. This flower was in the highest repute during the time of Mahomet IV. His Grand Vizir, Cara Mustapha, well known by his hatred against the Christians and the siege of Vienna, in 1683, wishing to turn the Sultan’s thoughts to some milder amusement than that of the chase, for which he had a strong passion, diverted his attention to flowers; and, as he remarked that the Emperor preferred the ranunculus to all others, he wrote to the different Pachas throughout the whole kingdom to send him seeds or roots of the most beautiful kinds. The Pachas of Candia, Cyprus, Aleppo, and Rhodes, paid most regard to this request; and the elegant flowers which they transmitted to court were shut up in the seraglio as unfortunate offerings to the voluptuousness of the Sultan, till some of them, by the force of money, were at length freed from their imprisonment. The ambassadors from the European courts, in particular, made it their business to procure roots of as many kinds as they could, which they sent to their different sovereigns. Marseilles, which at that period carried on the greatest trade to the Levant, received on this account these flowers very early; and a person there, of the name of Malaval is said to have contributed very much to disperse them all over Europe.

Some of our most common flowering shrubs have been long introduced into the gardens: the bay-tree has been cultivated more than two centuries; it is mentioned by Tusser, in the list of garden plants inserted in his work called, “Five Hundred Points of Good Husbandry,” printed in 1573. The laurel was introduced by Cole, a merchant at Hampstead, some years before 1629, when Parkinson published his Paradisus Terrestris, and at that time we had in our gardens oranges, myrtles of three sorts, lauristinus, cypress, phyllyrea, alaternus, arbuttus; a cactus, brought from Bermuda, and the passion-flower, which last had flowered here, and showed a remarkable peculiarity, by rising from the ground near a month sooner, if a seedling plant, than if it grew from roots brought from Virginia.

Crust of the Earth.

[In the preceding section the Author has noticed the superficies of the earth principally; as its inequalities because of seas, lakes, rivers, mountains, vallies, &c. The rocky, and earthy masses and strata, which cover the nucleus of our globe, are scarcely mentioned at all. Whether the central parts of the earth be solid, soft, or hollow, and filled with gaseous matter, is not the subject of enquiry here: but the composition and arrangement of the solid crust of the planet come under consideration.

As it regards the composition of the crust of the earth considered principally, it consists of metallic oxides. The bases of the different earths are well known to be metals. The metal called Silicon, is the base of silex or flint—Aluminum is the metallic base of pure clay—Calcium, of lime—Magnesium, of magnesia—Potasium, of potash, &c. Iron, also, enters largely into the composition; and soda, whose metallic base is sodium, forms a considerable portion.

These bases, at their creation, existed in an uncombined state, as did all the elementary substances. When they entered into combination with oxygen they became earths, which are simple metallic oxides, which readily combine with the acids, in which combination they are generally seen, though not always, at the earth’s surface; as carbonate of lime, or common limestone; the composition of which is calcium, oxygen, and carbonic acid.

Rocks of the silicious family are not considered earthy salts, though, occasionally, they may contain a small per cent. of acid. They are called earthy compounds. Granite is an instance; composed of feldspar, quartz, and mica. Gneiss, and mica slate are of similar composition, though in different proportions, and under different arrangements.

It will readily occur to the reader that there are some other earths, and other substances also, as the acids, and gases, which enter into the composition of the earth’s crust, though in small proportions, and, therefore, are not considered principal ingredients, and hence not noticed in this general sketch.

The rocky, or stony substances, composed of the above elements, under the influence of chemical affinities, and other principles, are found in crystalline, stratified, amorphous, and aggregate masses. The position, structure, and contents of these masses will develope the natural history of the solid crust of our Earth.

In order to facilitate this development, the rocks have been divided, according to their age into,

1. Primitive Rocks. These were deposited first, as is evident from their position, being the lowest of all the rocks. Their name indicates their relative age.

2. Transition Rocks. These rocks are deposited immediately above the primitive, of course subsequently to them. They are called transition rocks, because they were deposited as the earth was passing from an uninhabitable to a habitable state, as is evident from the fact that they contain the first traces of organized being imbedded in them.

3. Secondary Rocks. These are deposited next in succession to the transition rocks, and mark a third grand geological epoch, by being almost altogether a mechanical deposition, and lie horizontally when in situ, and contain an increase of organic remains, both in quantity and variety.

4. Tertiary Rocks. These derive their name from their succession to the secondary, and of course mark the fourth geological epoch in the history of the arrangement of the earth’s crust, which completed its redemption from the abyss of waters, and fitted it for the habitation of man.

This division of the rocks designates the order of time in which they were successively deposited, as is evident from their position.

Considering these rocks in situ, they may be reckoned general formations, extended all around the globe in concentric circles, as the coats of an onion around its centre, in the order above stated, beginning with the primitive rocks.

It is, however, well known that fractures and dislocations prevail to a great extent, the result of violence subsequently to the deposition of these rocks, removing large portions of them out of place. But this circumstance need not interrupt the grand natural order of the construction of the earth’s crust.

There is also a class of stony substances which follow no general laws, either in regard to position, form, or age. These are volcanic and igneous productions of every kind; as basalt, lava, &c. These shall be mentioned subsequently.

In the above remarks we have an outline of the structure of the crust of the earth; but in order to have a more satisfactory development, the principal and distinctive features of the leading rock formations must be stated in order.

Primitive Rocks.

1. This class occupies the lowest position as a class, yet the individual rocks of this class have a general order of position among themselves. Granite is lowest; then Gneiss — Mica Slate — Clay Slate — Primitive Limestone — Porphyry — Sienite — and Greenstone.

These rocks are sometimes observed alternating with each other, and sometimes passing into each other. But these circumstances do not effect the general order. When the formations are undisturbed, in penetrating them we should come to granite last; and it is universally the lowest of all observed rock formations.

2. This class is generally, indeed we may say, universally, crystalline in its structure. Each integrant particle is not a perfect crystal; but throughout the mass there is a partial crystallization, such as would be the result of an effort to crystallize perfectly, under a great pressure; in which case the particles would mutually interfere with each other.

The very fact of this crystallization implies first; a prevailing state of unagitated solution of the crystallizing materials: secondly: that their crystallization was the effect of chemical action.

3. The primitive rocks contain no fragments, either angular, or rounded by attrition, imbedded in them; simply because no rocks preceded them, and of course could not be broken up. It is, however, to be carefully observed, that perfect crystals of different kinds are found imbedded in primitive rocks. When they prevail to a great extent they constitute porphyritic rocks. It is evident that these crystals must have been formed before the consolidation of the including rock, and must have been suspended in the solution which formed the rock upon crystallization.

4. The primitive rocks contain no traces of organized bodies. This is an universal characteristic, and proves incontestibly that they were formed previous to the existence of organized beings.

5. The primitive rocks are usually inclined at a high angle to the horizon, and frequently are vertical. This seems to be the result of crystallization, as mechanical deposition would place them horizontally, having the general bearing of the curve of the earth.

6. The principal primitive rocks are granite, gneiss, and mica slate.

They are composed of the same materials, in different proportions; viz; feldspar, quartz, and mica. These three minerals constitute granite, when feldspar is the base, and the quartz is embedded in a crystalline state, and the mica interspersed generally. They constitute gneiss, when the feldspar decreases, and the mica increases, and is arranged in layers. They compose mica slate, when the feldspar almost disappears, and the mica and quartz are intimately united.

7. Though the primitive rocks occupy the lowest position in situ, yet they sometimes form, not only the summits of lofty mountains, but sometimes the mountain mass itself, and appear at the surface. In these cases it is evident that they have been upheaved by a force acting beneath, and forcing them through the superincumbent rocks, which were rent, and glided down the sides of the rising mass of primitive rocks, leaving them bare and visible at the summit. In this case the rocks which were uppermost before the mountain mass began to rise, would be found at the foot of the mountain; and the rocks which were next to the uppermost, would be found immediately above them, reclining on the side of the mountain; and thus ascending through the ages of the rocks to the summit of the mountain, where we find the primitive rock formations constituting its apex.

This phenomena of primitive rocks forming the apices of mountains may be explained differently. The primitive rocks, and other classes in succession, may have been deposited in mountain masses, and the upper rocks being softer and more exposed, have yielded to the ravages of the elements, and to the demolishing force of the deluge, and thus laid the primitive rocks bare. The first seems to be the most probable supposition.

8. It is beyond a doubt, that in some instances, an upheaving force has operated, and elevated the granitic summits of mountains; and so powerful was the upheaving force that the blocks of granite have broke at the apex of the elevation, and some of them hang over perpendicularly in awful grandeur; and others have rolled down the sides far into the plains below.

This theory of the formations of some of the principal mountains would be firmly established in every mind, if every one could have an opportunity of inspecting them without prejudice. The primitive rocks would be seen shooting up from the centre of the mountain, into lofty pyramidal elevations, resembling, sometimes, lofty spires, or cupolas; and sometimes the summit is rounded off as a dome. The rocks are in a verticle position, which proves they could not have been deposited there from a state of quiet repose.

Sometimes two summits project from the same common base, having an intervening valley or depression between them. In this case, the rocks which lay uppermost before the mass was upheaved, upon upheaving, broke and glided down the sides, on which they depend in magnificent drapery; but the portion of them which was situated between the uprising summits, not being able to escape, is found in the valley which is formed between the peaks.

In some instances, as the mass is elevating itself it bears up upon it a large mass of the over-laying rock, which forms the apex of the mountain, crowning it as a stately castle crowns the summit of the hill on which it is built. In this case the crowning mass is entirely different, and perfectly distinct from the subjacent materials. For some further remarks on the structure, and formation of mountains, and mountain masses, and the deluge, see Theory of the Earth, end of Sect. 2, chap. iv.

9. As there was a rapid and irresistible chemical action, at a very high temperature, going on during this first great geological period, and the whole globe in almost omnipotent fermentation, there is no difficulty in accounting for the irregularities, contortions, dislocations and fractures which we observe in the earth. This whole process was anterior to the existence of organized being.

Transition Rocks.

1. This class was deposited subsequently to the primitive rocks, and after they had consolidated. This is evident from the fact that, in their natural order, they overlay the primitive, which could not be the case, unless they were deposited subsequently, any more than the roof of the house could be put on before the foundation was laid.

2. Their structure is evidently the result both of chemical action, and mechanical deposition. These principles appear to have acted sometimes conjointly; and at other times to have alternated. Hence the crystallization is more imperfect than in the primitive, and occasionally seems to disappear.

3. From the complex action under which they were deposited, they are generally, neither verticle nor horizontal, but inclined about between these two positions.

4. They were deposited as the primitive chaotic ocean was subsiding, and the elevations of the new-born earth had recently emerged. Hence they are found next to the summits of the primitive mountains, on their flanks.

5. The transition rocks contain some fragments of all the primitive class. This would be the natural consequence of the summits of primitive rock formations being exposed to the fury of the elements; which would rend portions of them, and thus deposit the fragments mechanically in the floods subsiding below on the flanks of the mountains.

6. In these rocks we meet with the first traces of organized being. (Silliman.) This fact is irresistible proof that these rocks were deposited subsequently to the existence of the enclosed remains. The probability is, that the animals and vegetables found in transition rocks, were created at the commencement of the transition period, and their remains deposited as the rocks were successively deposited.

It is remarkable that these organized beings belonged to genera now extinct. They were of an inferior class, having neither the delicacy, complexity, or sensibility of those which we now see. They were crude, and gross, corresponding to the condition of the earth at the time of their existence.

It is also evident that they lived, and died, and were inhumed in the same places; as they present, generally, no marks of violence, and their most delicate parts are well preserved.

These organic remains occupy vast districts of country, and constitute, principally, large masses of marbles, sometimes many hundreds of feet in the interior of mountains. They are identified with the rock, and frequently impart to it its beauty.

7. The reader will readily perceive that this class of rocks marks the commencement of sensitive existence. And it would seem, from an examination of fossil remains generally, that the creation of animals and vegetables was progressive, produced with structures and functions adapted to the condition of the globe, at the time of their creation.

Secondary Rocks.

1. These rocks are so called, because they are the second great deposit, after the grand foundation of the primitive rocks were laid. Of course they point out the third great geological period.

2. Their position is horizontal, corresponding to the general curve of the earth. This regards their natural position. They are found, under particular circumstances, inclined to the horizon. They occupy a lower position on the sides of mountains, resting on the transition class, which is immediately subjacent in natural order.

3. This class is much less chemical, indeed very little so, in its structure. It is the result of mechanical deposition, after the chemical action had nearly ceased in the great primitive and retiring abyss.

4. These rocks abound more in fragments of other rocks, and in the remains of organized beings, than the preceding class. This would be natural, as a greater extent of the earth’s surface would be exposed to the elements, and thus the destruction would be greater: and as the condition of the earth was better for sustaining sensitive beings, these would of course be more abundant both in kind and number.

It is also well ascertained, from the fossil remains found in this class of rocks, that during their deposition, there existed many species of animals and plants which do not now exist: that many of the animals were monsters of incredible size and voracity; of such hugeness, grossness, and ferocity as were suitable to the then prevailing condition of the earth.

The researches of the last ten or fifteen years, in England, have brought to light the skeletons of animals, approaching the lizard genus, from sixty to seventy feet long!! They are abundant in England, and occasionally found on the continent. Who can say, but that the other genera of animals then existing, were also as much more vast, and misshapen than their present existing types? A single glance at the geological reminiscences of this ancient period must convince any observer, that the vegetable, and specially the animal genera then existing were really astonishing both in size, shape, and nature.

It becomes a question of some interest, whether these huge animals ceased to exist, having found their graves in this secondary class of rocks, before the existence of man?

There are many reasons which induce a supposition they did cease to exist. Man could scarcely have been safe in the land of these wonderful creatures. Moreover, it is probable their constitutions were adapted to the condition of the world at this period, which we suppose to have been more gross in its air, and water, and more ardent in its climate; as it had not yet settled, and dried; and the waters had not yet sufficiently subsided, to render the earth the abode of the more delicate land-animals, birds, and specially man. It is probable the earth was marshy, with numerous inland lakes, to a considerable extent; the waters still somewhat turbid; the air gross and moist; and the temperature still very high. Such a state of the planet would suit the constitutions of such monsters as the ichthyosaurus, and plesiosaurus, which would perish as the condition of the globe became more pure, and its temperature reduced.

Tertiary Rocks.

1. These rocks were deposited as the earth was actually, and finally redeemed from water, and became fit for the abode of the more delicate and gentle land-animals and birds. Hence, it is very rare, if ever, the fossil remains of animals which live wholly on land, are found below this class of rocks. But man’s companion animals are found, as elephants, deer, horse, sheep, &c.

2. This class is not so extensively spread as the preceding classes. It includes the diluvial and alluvial formations, and indicate an alternation of fresh and sea waters in its deposition. This class covers the low countries as they slope from primitive districts towards the sea. Such grand vallies are called diluvial, because deposited chiefly by the great primitive ocean, as it retired through its last stages to its resting beds. The deposites at the mouths of rivers, or any other deposites from causes now in operation, are called alluvial.

3. Some of the principal members of this class are: 1. Argillaceous, and sandy depositions from the sea. 2. Marl, and gypsum, from fresh water. 3. Sand, and sandstone, with or without shells, from sea water. 4. Limestone, and silicious millstone grit, from fresh water.

Conclusion.

From what has been said above we may clearly deduce the following particulars.

1. The crust of the earth is constructed of four great general classes of rocks: the primitive at the foundation; the transition, laying immediately over the primitive; the secondary immediately above these; and the tertiary at the surface. In this arrangement we consider the rocks in their natural position.

2. The position, structure, and organic remains of these classes, clearly point out a grand geological epoch, corresponding to the time of the deposition of each class, and thus indicate their relative ages. They indicate also the successive conditions of the globe as it passed from its gross chaotic state, to a state suitable for the habitation of man, and his companion animals.

3. The natural history of the primitive world, as deduced from geological facts, corresponds expressly in the order and nature of the events, with the account given by moses.

4. The gradual retiring of the primitive chaotic ocean, would give sufficient time for the production of those immense beds of marine animals which are found in the most solid and elevated mountains. During the prevalence of the sea, these beds would form at the bottom, and when it retired they would consolidate, with the mineral deposites, into rocks.

In this case the process is supposed to go on in a quiet ocean, peaceably retiring, and leaving the deposition in layers. But we must not suppose the waters were always still, and peacefully retiring. If so, there could not have been such distinct and different deposites, in which different substances sometimes alternate. Moreover, in this case there would have been but one deposition, which would have been regular and continuous, changing its character simply by almost imperceptible degrees, and extending all round the globe, as the globe was at first wholly immersed in water. But this is not the case. There is every reason to believe there were violent agitations, earthquakes, volcanos, tempests, deluges, &c., occasionally, during the subsidence of the primitive waters. Hence the dislocations, contortions, protrusions of lower rocks through upper ones, and the upheaving of the bottom of the seas in various places into ridges, and mountains, producing a tremendous deflux of waters frequently, which would wash out channels and vallies, and carry off fragments of rocks, &c., into the waters below.

Hence it is evident that the elevations on the earth’s surface have been partly caused by subterranean force upheaving them; and partly by currents of water wearing away channels, defiles, vallies, &c.

The natural result of upheaving, in mass, the bed of the ocean, would be to protrude a body in which were embedded the marine exuviæ throughout the whole depth of the marine deposites. Hence mountain masses are sometimes composed of limestone, in which are found immense quantities of sea shells, throughout the mass, and entering intimately into the composition of the rock. This, without doubt, is the true origin of these marine mountain remains.

Some have been disposed to attribute them to the deluge in the days of Noah; but this is impossible for two reasons. 1. The deluge did not continue a sufficient length of time to allow these animals to be produced in such quantities, or to bury them so deeply in the earth. 2. The rising waters could not have carried them to their present places; because, in that case they would be found at the surface of the earth, or near it exclusively; whereas they are found buried thousands of feet in mountains, and embedded in solid rocks. They could not have been transported by the waters, because they would have suffered violence, and been fractured, and compressed; which is not generally the case. They are found perfectly preserved, though of such delicate structure as would seem to have been destroyed by the least violence. Hence it is evident they are buried where they lived and died in perfect tranquillity.

It is true, there are instances in which the position and nature of the animals clearly prove that they were inhumed by some sudden catastrophe. For instance: when we see the fossil remains of delicate, and very active fish so placed as to indicate they were caught, we are convinced they perished suddenly. But this case is always local, and may have been produced by an earthquake, or volcanic action.

That the primitive chaotic ocean occupied the earth a long time, generally in a state of tranquillity, though occasionally, strongly agitated, and rising into overwhelming deluges and gradually retired, is evident also, from the fact, that the most delicate plants, leaves, and flowers are found inhumed, as the marine animals above, in a state of perfect preservation.

All the above phenomena took place prior to the creation of man.

Appendix.

There is another class of rocky substances which obey no settled laws, and, therefore, are noticed here in an appendix: They are rocks and substances of evident igneous origin: as basalt, obsidium, lavas of all textures, and trap rocks frequently, perhaps generally. These have one common origin: they are also of similar composition generally; and in this approach the composition of primitive rocks. They have been evidently ejected from the bowels of the earth in a melted state. They are found in almost all countries; and in some cases form mountains, and cover the surfaces of large districts to an astonishing depth: as in the north of Ireland, more than 500 feet thick, and over an area of 800 square miles. (Ure.)

Being protruded from beneath in a melted state they are found injected through the superincumbent rocks in shafts or veins of various sizes, from several inches to several feet. Sometimes being unable to rend the solid rocks above they are injected between their strata. They are generally somewhat crystalline in structure, because deposited on the same principles as granite, when undisturbed. From their position, superficial extent, and quantity, we infer they are the products of all ages, and of immense igneous action, seated at an unknown distance beneath the surface of the earth. Hence we may have some idea of the vast amount of igneous action which operated in the early ages of our planet. It must have been violently shaken from the centre to the surface.]

We may well ask, in the language of a German philosopher, Who can enumerate all the blessings which the vegetable kingdom affords? It is at least manifest that all the arrangements of Providence, in this respect, have for their grand object the advantage of the creatures. God has provided for the wants of each individual. He has assigned to each that plant, which is most proper for its nourishment and support. There is not a plant on the earth, but what has its particular destination and use. What sentiments of veneration and gratitude should we feel, at the sight of lawns, gardens, fields, and meadows! Here his beneficent care has collected all that is necessary for the comfort and preservation of the inhabitants of the earth. Here, oh God! thou openest thy hand, and satisfiest the desire of every living creature! Here every herb, ear of corn, flower, and tree, proclaims thy goodness! How closely might our modern geologists walk with God, if, like a Boyle, and a Ray, every new discovery led them to an increasing admiration of Divine wisdom and omnipotent power![103] for

“Philosophy, baptiz'd