Akrotiri
By terms of the 1960 Treaty of Establishment that created
the independent Republic of Cyprus, the UK retained full sovereignty
and jurisdiction over two areas of almost 254 square kilometers -
Akrotiri and Dhekelia. The southernmost and smallest of these is the
Akrotiri Sovereign Base Area, which is also referred to as the
Western Sovereign Base Area.
Albania
Albania declared its independence from the Ottoman Empire in
1912, but was conquered by Italy in 1939. Communist partisans took
over the country in 1944. Albania allied itself first with the USSR
(until 1960), and then with China (to 1978). In the early 1990s,
Albania ended 46 years of xenophobic Communist rule and established
a multiparty democracy. The transition has proven challenging as
successive governments have tried to deal with high unemployment,
widespread corruption, a dilapidated physical infrastructure,
powerful organized crime networks, and combative political
opponents. Albania has made progress in its democratic development
since first holding multiparty elections in 1991, but deficiencies
remain. International observers judged elections to be largely free
and fair since the restoration of political stability following the
collapse of pyramid schemes in 1997; however, there have been claims
of electoral fraud in every one of Albania's post-communist
elections. In the 2005 general elections, the Democratic Party and
its allies won a decisive victory on pledges to reduce crime and
corruption, promote economic growth, and decrease the size of
government. The election, and particularly the orderly transition of
power, was considered an important step forward. Albania joined NATO
in April 2009 and is a potential candidate for EU accession.
Although Albania's economy continues to grow, the country is still
one of the poorest in Europe, hampered by a large informal economy
and an inadequate energy and transportation infrastructure.
Algeria
After more than a century of rule by France, Algerians
fought through much of the 1950s to achieve independence in 1962.
Algeria's primary political party, the National Liberation Front
(FLN), was established in 1954 as part of the struggle for
independence and has largely dominated politics since. The
Government of Algeria in 1988 instituted a multi-party system in
response to public unrest, but the surprising first round success of
the Islamic Salvation Front (FIS) in the December 1991 balloting
spurred the Algerian army to intervene and postpone the second round
of elections to prevent what the secular elite feared would be an
extremist-led government from assuming power. The army began a
crackdown on the FIS that spurred FIS supporters to begin attacking
government targets, and fighting escalated into an insurgency, which
saw intense violence between 1992-98 resulting in over 100,000
deaths - many attributed to indiscriminate massacres of villagers by
extremists. The government gained the upper hand by the late-1990s,
and FIS's armed wing, the Islamic Salvation Army, disbanded in
January 2000. Abdelaziz BOUTEFLIKA, with the backing of the
military, won the presidency in 1999 in an election widely viewed as
fraudulent, was reelected to a second term in 2004, and
overwhelmingly won a third term in 2009 after the government amended
the constitution in 2008 to remove presidential term limits.
Longstanding problems continue to face BOUTEFLIKA, including
large-scale unemployment, a shortage of housing, unreliable
electrical and water supplies, government inefficiencies and
corruption, and the continuing activities of extremist militants.
The Salafist Group for Preaching and Combat (GSPC) in 2006 merged
with al-Qai'da to form al-Qai'da in the Lands of the Islamic
Maghreb, which has launched an ongoing series of kidnappings and
bombings targeting the Algerian Government and Western interests.
American Samoa
Settled as early as 1000 B.C., Samoa was "discovered"
by European explorers in the 18th century. International rivalries
in the latter half of the 19th century were settled by an 1899
treaty in which Germany and the US divided the Samoan archipelago.
The US formally occupied its portion - a smaller group of eastern
islands with the excellent harbor of Pago Pago - the following year.
Andorra
For 715 years, from 1278 to 1993, Andorrans lived under a
unique co-principality, ruled by French and Spanish leaders (from
1607 onward, the French chief of state and the Spanish bishop of Seu
d'Urgell). In 1993, this feudal system was modified with the titular
heads of state retained, but the government transformed into a
parliamentary democracy. For decades Andorra enjoyed its status as a
small refuge of fiscal and banking freedom and benefitted from
Spanish and French tourists attracted to the country's duty-free
shopping. The situation has changed in recent years as Andorra
started to tax foreign investment and other sectors. Tourism
accounts for over 80% of Andorra's gross domestic product.
Angola
Angola is rebuilding its country after the end of a 27-year
civil war in 2002. Fighting between the Popular Movement for the
Liberation of Angola (MPLA), led by Jose Eduardo DOS SANTOS, and the
National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA), led by
Jonas SAVIMBI, followed independence from Portugal in 1975. Peace
seemed imminent in 1992 when Angola held national elections, but
fighting picked up again by 1996. Up to 1.5 million lives may have
been lost - and 4 million people displaced - in the quarter century
of fighting. SAVIMBI's death in 2002 ended UNITA's insurgency and
strengthened the MPLA's hold on power. President DOS SANTOS held
legislative elections in September 2008 and, despite promising to
hold presidential elections in 2009, has since made a presidential
poll contingent on the drafting of a new constitution.
Anguilla
Colonized by English settlers from Saint Kitts in 1650,
Anguilla was administered by Great Britain until the early 19th
century, when the island - against the wishes of the inhabitants -
was incorporated into a single British dependency along with Saint
Kitts and Nevis. Several attempts at separation failed. In 1971, two
years after a revolt, Anguilla was finally allowed to secede; this
arrangement was formally recognized in 1980 with Anguilla becoming a
separate British dependency.
Antarctica
Speculation over the existence of a "southern land" was
not confirmed until the early 1820s when British and American
commercial operators and British and Russian national expeditions
began exploring the Antarctic Peninsula region and other areas south
of the Antarctic Circle. Not until 1840 was it established that
Antarctica was indeed a continent and not just a group of islands or
an area of ocean. Several exploration "firsts" were achieved in the
early 20th century, but generally the area saw little human
activity. Following World War II, however, there was an upsurge in
scientific research on the continent. A number of countries have set
up a range of year-round and seasonal stations, camps, and refuges
to support scientific research in Antarctica. Seven have made
territorial claims, but not all countries recognize these claims. In
order to form a legal framework for the activities of nations on the
continent, an Antarctic Treaty was negotiated that neither denies
nor gives recognition to existing territorial claims; signed in
1959, it entered into force in 1961.
Antigua and Barbuda
The Siboney were the first to inhabit the
islands of Antigua and Barbuda in 2400 B.C., but Arawak Indians
populated the islands when COLUMBUS landed on his second voyage in
1493. Early settlements by the Spanish and French were succeeded by
the English who formed a colony in 1667. Slavery, established to run
the sugar plantations on Antigua, was abolished in 1834. The islands
became an independent state within the British Commonwealth of
Nations in 1981.
Arctic Ocean
The Arctic Ocean is the smallest of the world's five
oceans (after the Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, and
the recently delimited Southern Ocean). The Northwest Passage (US
and Canada) and Northern Sea Route (Norway and Russia) are two
important seasonal waterways. In recent years the polar ice pack has
thinned allowing for increased navigation and raising the
possibility of future sovereignty and shipping disputes among
countries bordering the Arctic Ocean.