Argentina
In 1816, the United Provinces of the Rio Plata declared
their independence from Spain. After Bolivia, Paraguay, and Uruguay
went their separate ways, the area that remained became Argentina.
The country's population and culture were heavily shaped by
immigrants from throughout Europe, but most particularly Italy and
Spain, which provided the largest percentage of newcomers from 1860
to 1930. Up until about the mid-20th century, much of Argentina's
history was dominated by periods of internal political conflict
between Federalists and Unitarians and between civilian and military
factions. After World War II, an era of Peronist populism and direct
and indirect military interference in subsequent governments was
followed by a military junta that took power in 1976. Democracy
returned in 1983 after a failed bid to seize the Falkland (Malvinas)
Islands by force, and has persisted despite numerous challenges, the
most formidable of which was a severe economic crisis in 2001-02
that led to violent public protests and the successive resignations
of several presidents.
Armenia
Armenia prides itself on being the first nation to formally
adopt Christianity (early 4th century). Despite periods of autonomy,
over the centuries Armenia came under the sway of various empires
including the Roman, Byzantine, Arab, Persian, and Ottoman. During
World War I in the western portion of Armenia, Ottoman Turkey
instituted a policy of forced resettlement coupled with other harsh
practices that resulted in an estimated 1 million Armenian deaths.
The eastern area of Armenia was ceded by the Ottomans to Russia in
1828; this portion declared its independence in 1918, but was
conquered by the Soviet Red Army in 1920. Armenian leaders remain
preoccupied by the long conflict with Azerbaijan over
Nagorno-Karabakh, a primarily Armenian-populated region, assigned to
Soviet Azerbaijan in the 1920s by Moscow. Armenia and Azerbaijan
began fighting over the area in 1988; the struggle escalated after
both countries attained independence from the Soviet Union in 1991.
By May 1994, when a cease-fire took hold, ethnic Armenian forces
held not only Nagorno-Karabakh but also a significant portion of
Azerbaijan proper. The economies of both sides have been hurt by
their inability to make substantial progress toward a peaceful
resolution. Turkey closed the common border with Armenia in 1994
because of the Armenian separatists' control of Nagorno-Karabakh and
surrounding areas, further hampering Armenian economic growth. In
2009, senior Armenian leaders began pursuing rapprochement with
Turkey, aiming to secure an opening of the border; this process is
currently dormant.
Aruba
Discovered and claimed for Spain in 1499, Aruba was acquired
by the Dutch in 1636. The island's economy has been dominated by
three main industries. A 19th century gold rush was followed by
prosperity brought on by the opening in 1924 of an oil refinery. The
last decades of the 20th century saw a boom in the tourism industry.
Aruba seceded from the Netherlands Antilles in 1986 and became a
separate, autonomous member of the Kingdom of the Netherlands.
Movement toward full independence was halted at Aruba's request in
1990.
Ashmore and Cartier Islands
These uninhabited islands came under
Australian authority in 1931; formal administration began two years
later. Ashmore Reef supports a rich and diverse avian and marine
habitat; in 1983, it became a National Nature Reserve. Cartier
Island, a former bombing range, became a marine reserve in 2000.
Atlantic Ocean
The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of the
world's five oceans (after the Pacific Ocean, but larger than the
Indian Ocean, Southern Ocean, and Arctic Ocean). The Kiel Canal
(Germany), Oresund (Denmark-Sweden), Bosporus (Turkey), Strait of
Gibraltar (Morocco-Spain), and the Saint Lawrence Seaway (Canada-US)
are important strategic access waterways. The decision by the
International Hydrographic Organization in the spring of 2000 to
delimit a fifth world ocean, the Southern Ocean, removed the portion
of the Atlantic Ocean south of 60 degrees south latitude.
Australia
Aboriginal settlers arrived on the continent from
Southeast Asia about 40,000 years before the first Europeans began
exploration in the 17th century. No formal territorial claims were
made until 1770, when Capt. James COOK took possession in the name
of Great Britain. Six colonies were created in the late 18th and
19th centuries; they federated and became the Commonwealth of
Australia in 1901. The new country took advantage of its natural
resources to rapidly develop agricultural and manufacturing
industries and to make a major contribution to the British effort in
World Wars I and II. In recent decades, Australia has transformed
itself into an internationally competitive, advanced market economy.
It boasted one of the OECD's fastest growing economies during the
1990s, a performance due in large part to economic reforms adopted
in the 1980s. Long-term concerns include climate-change issues such
as the depletion of the ozone layer and more frequent droughts, and
management and conservation of coastal areas, especially the Great
Barrier Reef.
Austria
Once the center of power for the large Austro-Hungarian
Empire, Austria was reduced to a small republic after its defeat in
World War I. Following annexation by Nazi Germany in 1938 and
subsequent occupation by the victorious Allies in 1945, Austria's
status remained unclear for a decade. A State Treaty signed in 1955
ended the occupation, recognized Austria's independence, and forbade
unification with Germany. A constitutional law that same year
declared the country's "perpetual neutrality" as a condition for
Soviet military withdrawal. The Soviet Union's collapse in 1991 and
Austria's entry into the European Union in 1995 have altered the
meaning of this neutrality. A prosperous, democratic country,
Austria entered the EU Economic and Monetary Union in 1999.
Azerbaijan
Azerbaijan - a nation with a majority-Turkic and
majority-Muslim population - was briefly independent from 1918 to
1920; it regained its independence after the collapse of the Soviet
Union in 1991. Despite a 1994 cease-fire, Azerbaijan has yet to
resolve its conflict with Armenia over Nagorno-Karabakh, a primarily
Armenian-populated region that Moscow recognized as part of Soviet
Azerbaijan in the 1920s after Armenia and Azerbaijan disputed the
status of the territory. Armenia and Azerbaijan began fighting over
the area in 1988; the struggle escalated after both countries
attained independence from the Soviet Union in 1991. By May 1994,
when a cease-fire took hold, ethnic Armenian forces held not only
Nagorno-Karabakh but also seven surrounding provinces in the
territory of Azerbaijan. Corruption in the country is ubiquitous,
and the government, which eliminated presidential term limits in a
2009 referendum, has been accused of authoritarianism. Although the
poverty rate has been reduced in recent years due to revenue from
oil production, the promise of widespread wealth resulting from the
continued development of Azerbaijan's energy sector remains largely
unfulfilled.
Bahamas, The
Lucayan Indians inhabited the islands when Christopher
COLUMBUS first set foot in the New World on San Salvador in 1492.
British settlement of the islands began in 1647; the islands became
a colony in 1783. Since attaining independence from the UK in 1973,
The Bahamas has prospered through tourism and international banking
and investment management. Because of its geography, the country is
a major transshipment point for illegal drugs, particularly
shipments to the US and Europe, and its territory is used for
smuggling illegal migrants into the US.
Bahrain
In 1783, the al-Khalifa family captured Bahrain from the
Persians. In order to secure these holdings, it entered into a
series of treaties with the UK during the 19th century that made
Bahrain a British protectorate. The archipelago attained its
independence in 1971. Bahrain's small size and central location
among Persian Gulf countries require it to play a delicate balancing
act in foreign affairs among its larger neighbors. Facing declining
oil reserves, Bahrain has turned to petroleum processing and
refining and has transformed itself into an international banking
center. King HAMAD bin Isa al-Khalifa, after coming to power in
1999, pushed economic and political reforms to improve relations
with the Shia community. Shia political societies participated in
2010 parliamentary and municipal elections. Al Wifaq, the largest
Shia political society, won the largest number of seats in the
elected chamber of the legislature. However, Shia discontent has
resurfaced in recent years with street demonstrations and occasional
low-level violence.