The 2010 CIA World Factbook

by United States. Central Intelligence Agency

Laos
Modern-day Laos has its roots in the ancient Lao kingdom of Lan
Xang, established in the 14th Century under King FA NGUM. For 300
years Lan Xang had influence reaching into present-day Cambodia and
Thailand, as well as over all of what is now Laos. After centuries
of gradual decline, Laos came under the domination of Siam
(Thailand) from the late 18th century until the late 19th century
when it became part of French Indochina. The Franco-Siamese Treaty
of 1907 defined the current Lao border with Thailand. In 1975, the
Communist Pathet Lao took control of the government ending a
six-century-old monarchy and instituting a strict socialist regime
closely aligned to Vietnam. A gradual, limited return to private
enterprise and the liberalization of foreign investment laws began
in 1988. Laos became a member of ASEAN in 1997. In late 2009,
Thailand returned to Laos about 3,000 Hmong residing in refugee
camps.

Latvia
The name "Latvia" originates from the ancient Latgalians, one
of four eastern Baltic tribes that formed the ethnic core of the
Latvian people (ca. 8th-12th centuries A.D.). The region
subsequently came under the control of Germans, Poles, Swedes, and
finally, Russians. A Latvian republic emerged following World War I,
but it was annexed by the USSR in 1940 - an action never recognized
by the US and many other countries. Latvia reestablished its
independence in 1991 following the breakup of the Soviet Union.
Although the last Russian troops left in 1994, the status of the
Russian minority (some 30% of the population) remains of concern to
Moscow. Latvia joined both NATO and the EU in the spring of 2004.

Lebanon Following World War I, France acquired a mandate over the northern portion of the former Ottoman Empire province of Syria. The French separated out the region of Lebanon in 1920, and granted this area independence in 1943. A lengthy civil war (1975-1990) devastated the country, but Lebanon has since made progress toward rebuilding its political institutions. Under the Ta'if Accord - the blueprint for national reconciliation - the Lebanese established a more equitable political system, particularly by giving Muslims a greater voice in the political process while institutionalizing sectarian divisions in the government. Since the end of the war, Lebanon has conducted several successful elections. Most militias have been reduced or disbanded, with the exception of Hizballah, designated by the US State Department as a Foreign Terrorist Organization, and Palestinian militant groups. During Lebanon's civil war, the Arab League legitimized in the Ta'if Accord Syria's troop deployment, numbering about 16,000 based mainly east of Beirut and in the Bekaa Valley. Israel's withdrawal from southern Lebanon in May 2000 and the passage in September 2004 of UNSCR 1559 - a resolution calling for Syria to withdraw from Lebanon and end its interference in Lebanese affairs - encouraged some Lebanese groups to demand that Syria withdraw its forces as well. The assassination of former Prime Minister Rafiq HARIRI and 22 others in February 2005 led to massive demonstrations in Beirut against the Syrian presence ("the Cedar Revolution"), and Syria withdrew the remainder of its military forces in April 2005. In May-June 2005, Lebanon held its first legislative elections since the end of the civil war free of foreign interference, handing a majority to the bloc led by Sa'ad HARIRI, the slain prime minister's son. In July 2006, Hizballah kidnapped two Israeli soldiers leading to a 34-day conflict with Israel in which approximately 1,200 Lebanese civilians were killed. UNSCR 1701 ended the war in August 2006, and Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF) deployed throughout the country for the first time in decades, charged with securing Lebanon's borders against weapons smuggling and maintaining a weapons-free zone in south Lebanon with the help of the UN Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL). The LAF in May-September 2007 battled Sunni extremist group Fatah al-Islam in the Nahr al-Barid Palestinian refugee camp, winning a decisive victory, but destroying the camp and displacing 30,000 Palestinian residents. Lebanese politicians in November 2007 were unable to agree on a successor to Emile LAHUD when he stepped down as president, creating a political vacuum until the election of LAF Commander Gen. Michel SULAYMAN in May 2008 and the formation of a new unity government in July 2008. Legislative elections in June 2009 again produced victory for the bloc led by Sa'ad HARIRI, but a period of prolonged negotiation over the composition of the cabinet ensued. A national unity government was finally formed in November 2009 and approved by the National Assembly the following month. In January 2010, Lebanon assumed a nonpermanent seat on the UN Security Council for the 2010-11 term.

Lesotho
Basutoland was renamed the Kingdom of Lesotho upon
independence from the UK in 1966. The Basuto National Party ruled
for the first two decades. King MOSHOESHOE was exiled in 1990, but
returned to Lesotho in 1992 and was reinstated in 1995.
Constitutional government was restored in 1993 after seven years of
military rule. In 1998, violent protests and a military mutiny
following a contentious election prompted a brief but bloody
intervention by South African and Botswana military forces under the
aegis of the Southern African Development Community. Subsequent
constitutional reforms restored relative political stability.
Peaceful parliamentary elections were held in 2002, but the National
Assembly elections of February 2007 were hotly contested and
aggrieved parties continue to dispute how the electoral law was
applied to award proportional seats in the Assembly.

Liberia
Settlement of freed slaves from the US in what is today
Liberia began in 1822; by 1847, the Americo-Liberians were able to
establish a republic. William TUBMAN, president from 1944-71, did
much to promote foreign investment and to bridge the economic,
social, and political gaps between the descendents of the original
settlers and the inhabitants of the interior. In 1980, a military
coup led by Samuel DOE ushered in a decade of authoritarian rule. In
December 1989, Charles TAYLOR launched a rebellion against DOE's
regime that led to a prolonged civil war in which DOE himself was
killed. A period of relative peace in 1997 allowed for elections
that brought TAYLOR to power, but major fighting resumed in 2000. An
August 2003 peace agreement ended the war and prompted the
resignation of former president Charles TAYLOR, who faces war crimes
charges in The Hague related to his involvement in Sierra Leone's
civil war. After two years of rule by a transitional government,
democratic elections in late 2005 brought President Ellen JOHNSON
SIRLEAF to power. The UN Mission in Liberia (UNMIL) maintains a
strong presence throughout the country, but the security situation
is still fragile and the process of rebuilding the social and
economic structure of this war-torn country continues.

Libya
The Italians supplanted the Ottoman Turks in the area around
Tripoli in 1911 and did not relinquish their hold until 1943 when
defeated in World War II. Libya then passed to UN administration and
achieved independence in 1951. Following a 1969 military coup, Col.
Muammar Abu Minyar al-QADHAFI began to espouse his own political
system, the Third Universal Theory. The system is a combination of
socialism and Islam derived in part from tribal practices and is
supposed to be implemented by the Libyan people themselves in a
unique form of "direct democracy." QADHAFI has always seen himself
as a revolutionary and visionary leader. He used oil funds during
the 1970s and 1980s to promote his ideology outside Libya,
supporting subversives and terrorists abroad to hasten the end of
Marxism and capitalism. In addition, beginning in 1973, he engaged
in military operations in northern Chad's Aozou Strip - to gain
access to minerals and to use as a base of influence in Chadian
politics - but was forced to retreat in 1987. UN sanctions in 1992
isolated QADHAFI politically following the downing of Pan AM Flight
103 over Lockerbie, Scotland. During the 1990s, QADHAFI began to
rebuild his relationships with Europe. UN sanctions were suspended
in April 1999 and finally lifted in September 2003 after Libya
accepted responsibility for the Lockerbie bombing. In December 2003,
Libya announced that it had agreed to reveal and end its programs to
develop weapons of mass destruction and to renounce terrorism.
QADHAFI has made significant strides in normalizing relations with
Western nations since then. He has received various Western European
leaders as well as many working-level and commercial delegations,
and made his first trip to Western Europe in 15 years when he
traveled to Brussels in April 2004. The US rescinded Libya's
designation as a state sponsor of terrorism in June 2006. In January
2008, Libya assumed a nonpermanent seat on the UN Security Council
for the 2008-09 term. In August 2008, the US and Libya signed a
bilateral comprehensive claims settlement agreement to compensate
claimants in both countries who allege injury or death at the hands
of the other country, including the Lockerbie bombing, the LaBelle
disco bombing, and the UTA 772 bombing. In October 2008, the US
Government received $1.5 billion pursuant to the agreement to
distribute to US national claimants, and as a result effectively
normalized its bilateral relationship with Libya. The two countries
then exchanged ambassadors for the first time since 1973 in January
2009. Libya in May 2010 was elected to its first three-year seat on
the UN Human Rights Council, prompting protests from international
non-governmental organizations and human rights campaigners.

Liechtenstein
The Principality of Liechtenstein was established
within the Holy Roman Empire in 1719. Occupied by both French and
Russian troops during the Napoleonic wars, it became a sovereign
state in 1806 and joined the Germanic Confederation in 1815.
Liechtenstein became fully independent in 1866 when the
Confederation dissolved. Until the end of World War I, it was
closely tied to Austria, but the economic devastation caused by that
conflict forced Liechtenstein to enter into a customs and monetary
union with Switzerland. Since World War II (in which Liechtenstein
remained neutral), the country's low taxes have spurred outstanding
economic growth. In 2000, shortcomings in banking regulatory
oversight resulted in concerns about the use of financial
institutions for money laundering. However, Liechtenstein
implemented anti-money-laundering legislation and a Mutual Legal
Assistance Treaty with the US that went into effect in 2003.

Lithuania
Lithuanian lands were united under MINDAUGAS in 1236; over
the next century, through alliances and conquest, Lithuania extended
its territory to include most of present-day Belarus and Ukraine. By
the end of the 14th century Lithuania was the largest state in
Europe. An alliance with Poland in 1386 led the two countries into a
union through the person of a common ruler. In 1569, Lithuania and
Poland formally united into a single dual state, the
Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. This entity survived until 1795 when
its remnants were partitioned by surrounding countries. Lithuania
regained its independence following World War I but was annexed by
the USSR in 1940 - an action never recognized by the US and many
other countries. On 11 March 1990, Lithuania became the first of the
Soviet republics to declare its independence, but Moscow did not
recognize this proclamation until September of 1991 (following the
abortive coup in Moscow). The last Russian troops withdrew in 1993.
Lithuania subsequently restructured its economy for integration into
Western European institutions; it joined both NATO and the EU in the
spring of 2004.

Luxembourg
Founded in 963, Luxembourg became a grand duchy in 1815
and an independent state under the Netherlands. It lost more than
half of its territory to Belgium in 1839 but gained a larger measure
of autonomy. Full independence was attained in 1867. Overrun by
Germany in both world wars, it ended its neutrality in 1948 when it
entered into the Benelux Customs Union and when it joined NATO the
following year. In 1957, Luxembourg became one of the six founding
countries of the European Economic Community (later the European
Union), and in 1999 it joined the euro currency area.

Macau
Colonized by the Portuguese in the 16th century, Macau was the
first European settlement in the Far East. Pursuant to an agreement
signed by China and Portugal on 13 April 1987, Macau became the
Macau Special Administrative Region (SAR) of the People's Republic
of China on 20 December 1999. In this agreement, China promised
that, under its "one country, two systems" formula, China's
socialist economic system would not be practiced in Macau, and that
Macau would enjoy a high degree of autonomy in all matters except
foreign and defense affairs for the next 50 years.