Macedonia
Macedonia gained its independence peacefully from
Yugoslavia in 1991. Greece's objection to the new state's use of
what it considered a Hellenic name and symbols delayed international
recognition, which occurred under the provisional designation of
"the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia." In 1995, Greece lifted
a 20-month trade embargo and the two countries agreed to normalize
relations. The United States began referring to Macedonia by its
constitutional name, Republic of Macedonia, in 2004 and negotiations
continue between Greece and Macedonia to resolve the name issue.
Some ethnic Albanians, angered by perceived political and economic
inequities, launched an insurgency in 2001 that eventually won the
support of the majority of Macedonia's Albanian population and led
to the internationally-brokered Ohrid Framework Agreement, which
ended the fighting by establishing a set of new laws enhancing the
rights of minorities. Fully implementing the Framework Agreement and
stimulating economic growth and development continue to be
challenges for Macedonia, although progress has been made on both
fronts over the past several years.
Madagascar
Formerly an independent kingdom, Madagascar became a
French colony in 1896 but regained independence in 1960. During
1992-93, free presidential and National Assembly elections were held
ending 17 years of single-party rule. In 1997, in the second
presidential race, Didier RATSIRAKA, the leader during the 1970s and
1980s, was returned to the presidency. The 2001 presidential
election was contested between the followers of Didier RATSIRAKA and
Marc RAVALOMANANA, nearly causing secession of half of the country.
In April 2002, the High Constitutional Court announced RAVALOMANANA
the winner. RAVALOMANANA achieved a second term following a
landslide victory in the generally free and fair presidential
elections of 2006. In early 2009, protests over increasing
restrictions on opposition press and activities resulted in
RAVALOMANANA stepping down and the presidency was conferred to the
mayor of Antananarivo, Andry RAJOELINA. Following negotiations in
July and August of 2009, a power-sharing agreement with a 15-month
transitional period was established, but has not yet been
implemented.
Malawi
Established in 1891, the British protectorate of Nyasaland
became the independent nation of Malawi in 1964. After three decades
of one-party rule under President Hastings Kamuzu BANDA the country
held multiparty elections in 1994, under a provisional constitution
that came into full effect the following year. Current President
Bingu wa MUTHARIKA, elected in May 2004 after a failed attempt by
the previous president to amend the constitution to permit another
term, struggled to assert his authority against his predecessor and
subsequently started his own party, the Democratic Progressive Party
(DPP) in 2005. As president, MUTHARIKA has overseen economic
improvement but because of political deadlock in the legislature,
his minority party has been unable to pass significant legislation,
and anti-corruption measures have stalled. Population growth,
increasing pressure on agricultural lands, corruption, and the
spread of HIV/AIDS pose major problems for Malawi. MUTHARIKA was
reelected to a second term in May 2009.
Malaysia
During the late 18th and 19th centuries, Great Britain
established colonies and protectorates in the area of current
Malaysia; these were occupied by Japan from 1942 to 1945. In 1948,
the British-ruled territories on the Malay Peninsula formed the
Federation of Malaya, which became independent in 1957. Malaysia was
formed in 1963 when the former British colonies of Singapore and the
East Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak on the northern coast of
Borneo joined the Federation. The first several years of the
country's history were marred by a Communist insurgency, Indonesian
confrontation with Malaysia, Philippine claims to Sabah, and
Singapore's secession from the Federation in 1965. During the
22-year term of Prime Minister MAHATHIR bin Mohamad (1981-2003),
Malaysia was successful in diversifying its economy from dependence
on exports of raw materials to expansion in manufacturing, services,
and tourism.
Maldives
The Maldives was long a sultanate, first under Dutch and
then under British protection. It became a republic in 1968, three
years after independence. President Maumoon Abdul GAYOOM dominated
the islands' political scene for 30 years, elected to six successive
terms by single-party referendums. Following riots in the capital
Male in August 2004, the president and his government pledged to
embark upon democratic reforms including a more representative
political system and expanded political freedoms. Progress was
sluggish, however, and many promised reforms were slow to be
realized. Nonetheless, political parties were legalized in 2005. In
June 2008, a constituent assembly - termed the "Special Majlis" -
finalized a new constitution, which was ratified by the president in
August. The first-ever presidential elections under a
multi-candidate, multi-party system were held in October 2008.
GAYOOM was defeated in a runoff poll by Mohamed NASHEED, a political
activist who had been jailed several years earlier by the former
regime. Challenges facing the new president include strengthening
democracy and combating poverty and drug abuse. Maldives officials
have been prominent participants in international climate change
talks due to the islands' low elevation and the threat from
sea-level rise.
Mali
The Sudanese Republic and Senegal became independent of France
in 1960 as the Mali Federation. When Senegal withdrew after only a
few months, what formerly made up the Sudanese Republic was renamed
Mali. Rule by dictatorship was brought to a close in 1991 by a
military coup - led by the current president Amadou TOURE - enabling
Mali's emergence as one of the strongest democracies on the
continent. President Alpha KONARE won Mali's first democratic
presidential election in 1992 and was reelected in 1997. In keeping
with Mali's two-term constitutional limit, KONARE stepped down in
2002 and was succeeded by Amadou TOURE, who was subsequently elected
to a second term in 2007. The elections were widely judged to be
free and fair.
Malta
Great Britain formally acquired possession of Malta in 1814.
The island staunchly supported the UK through both world wars and
remained in the Commonwealth when it became independent in 1964. A
decade later Malta became a republic. Since about the mid-1980s, the
island has transformed itself into a freight transshipment point, a
financial center, and a tourist destination. Malta became an EU
member in May 2004 and began using the euro as currency in 2008.
Marshall Islands
After almost four decades under US administration
as the easternmost part of the UN Trust Territory of the Pacific
Islands, the Marshall Islands attained independence in 1986 under a
Compact of Free Association. Compensation claims continue as a
result of US nuclear testing on some of the atolls between 1947 and
1962. The Marshall Islands hosts the US Army Kwajalein Atoll (USAKA)
Reagan Missile Test Site, a key installation in the US missile
defense network.
Mauritania
Independent from France in 1960, Mauritania annexed the
southern third of the former Spanish Sahara (now Western Sahara) in
1976 but relinquished it after three years of raids by the Polisario
guerrilla front seeking independence for the territory. Maaouya Ould
Sid Ahmed TAYA seized power in a coup in 1984 and ruled Mauritania
with a heavy hand for more than two decades. A series of
presidential elections that he held were widely seen as flawed. A
bloodless coup in August 2005 deposed President TAYA and ushered in
a military council that oversaw a transition to democratic rule.
Independent candidate Sidi Ould Cheikh ABDALLAHI was inaugurated in
April 2007 as Mauritania's first freely and fairly elected
president. His term ended prematurely in August 2008 when a military
junta led by General Mohamed Ould Abdel AZIZ deposed him and ushered
in a military council government. AZIZ was subsequently elected
president in July 2009. The country continues to experience ethnic
tensions among its black population (Afro-Mauritanians) and white
and black Moor (Arab-Berber) communities, and is having to confront
a growing terrorism threat by al-Qa'ida in the Islamic Maghreb
(AQIM).
Mauritius
Although known to Arab and Malay sailors as early as the
10th century, Mauritius was first explored by the Portuguese in the
16th century and subsequently settled by the Dutch - who named it in
honor of Prince Maurits van NASSAU - in the 17th century. The French
assumed control in 1715, developing the island into an important
naval base overseeing Indian Ocean trade, and establishing a
plantation economy of sugar cane. The British captured the island in
1810, during the Napoleonic Wars. Mauritius remained a strategically
important British naval base, and later an air station, playing an
important role during World War II for anti-submarine and convoy
operations, as well as the collection of signals intelligence.
Independence from the UK was attained in 1968. A stable democracy
with regular free elections and a positive human rights record, the
country has attracted considerable foreign investment and has earned
one of Africa's highest per capita incomes. Recent poor weather,
declining sugar prices, and declining textile and apparel
production, have slowed economic growth, leading to some protests
over standards of living in the Creole community.