From papers in the “Bolognese Transactions” noted below, it would appear that he had, even before the year 1780, made many observations on the muscular contraction of frogs by electrical agency. Upon one occasion his wife happened to be holding a scalpel against the dissected legs and parts of the spine of a frog, which lay in close proximity to the conductor of an electrical machine recently charged by one of Galvani’s pupils. She noticed that whenever the dissecting knife touched the muscles they were violently convulsed, and, upon communicating the fact to her husband, he repeated and extended the experiment and found it necessary to pass the electric fluid through a metallic substance in order to develop the result originally observed. At first the frogs had been hung upon a copper hook fastened to an iron railing, but he afterward substituted an arc composed of both metals and with which he could readily produce the same results as were obtainable with an electrical machine.
Galvani also made experiments to ascertain the effect of atmospheric electricity upon the nerves of frogs. He connected the latter with rods leading to lightning conductors erected upon the roof of his house, attaching also ground wires to the legs of the animals, and found that the same convulsions appeared whenever lightning was seen and likewise when heavy storm clouds passed over the house.
The results of his many interesting observations were first made public in the celebrated work entitled “Aloysii Galvani de viribus electricitatis in motu musculari. Commentarius: cum Aldini dissertatione et notis,” which appeared during 1791–1792. Therein, he expresses the belief that the bodies of animals possess a peculiar kind of electricity by which motion is communicated through both nerve and muscle, positive electricity going to the nerve, while negative electricity goes to the muscle, and that the muscles represent the exterior and the nerves the interior of the Leyden jar, the discharge being similarly produced by the metal which communicates with both.
Galvani’s singular experiments naturally attracted everywhere the attention of philosophers, by whom they were repeated and varied, but by none were they more assiduously prosecuted than by Volta, who was then a Professor at the Pavia University, and who, as already indicated, was led by them to the discovery of the voltaic pile and of voltaic or galvanic electricity.
The announcement of Galvani’s observations was made in Germany, notably by J. F. Ackermann (“Medicinisch-chirurgische Zeitung”), by M. Er (“Physiologische Darstellung der Lebenskräfte”), by M. Smuck (“Beiträge zur weiteren Kenntniss,” etc.), and by F. A. C. Gren (“Journal der Physik,” Vols. VI, VII and VIII), while experiments were continued upon an extensive scale by the Italians F. Fontana, Carlo Francesco Bellingeri, M. Giulio and F. Rossi, as well as by Samuel T. Von Sömmering, by Wilhelm Behrends and by Karl Friedrich Kielmayer (Kielmaier), Professor of Medicine at the Tübingen University (Poggendorff, Vol. I. p. 1253). For the curious galvanic experiments of the celebrated French physician Larrey, and of Stark, Richerand, Dupuytren and Dumas, see “Bulletin des Sciences de la Société Philomathique,” 1793, Nos. 23, 24, and “Principes de Physiologie,” Vol. II. p. 312.
References.—C. Alibert, “Eloges Historiques de Galvani, Spallanzani, Roussel et Bichat ...” Paris and Bologna, 1802–1806 (“Mém. de la Soc. d’Emul. de Paris,” Vol. IV; S. Gherardi, “Rapporto sui Manoscrotti,” Bologna, 1840, p. 19); Poggendorff, Vol. I. p. 839; Thomas Thomson, “History of the Royal Society,” London, 1812, pp. 450, etc.; Thomas Young, “Course of Lectures,” London, 1807, Vol. II; “Bolognese Transactions” for papers dated April 9, 1772, April 22, 1773 and Jan. 20, 1774; Sabine, “El. Tel.,” 1872, pp. 16–18; Knight’s “Mech. Dict.,” Vol. II. pp. 936, 937, for extract from report of Nat. Inst. of France, July 4, 1798; “Johnson’s Encyclop.,” 1877, Vol. I. p. 1510; Bakewell’s “Electricity,” p. 26; “Encyclop. Britannica,” 1855, Vol. VIII. p. 530, and Vol. XXI. pp. 609, etc.; Fahie’s “History,” etc., 1884, pp. 180–185; Phil. Trans., 1793; Miller, “History Philos. Illustrated,” London, 1849, Vol. IV. p. 333; Thomson, “Hist. of Chemistry,” Vol. II. pp. 251, 252; Matteucci, “Traité des phénomènes,” etc., Part I. p. 7; the Address of M. Gavarret made in 1848 before the Paris Medical Faculty; J. C. I. A. Creve’s treatise on Galvanism (“Jour. de la Soc. de Méd.,” Vol. XVIII. p. 216); “Mém. de la Soc. Méd. d’Emul.,” Vol. I. p. 236); Biot et Cuvier (Ann. de Ch., Vol. XXXIX. p. 247); A. Richerand (“Mém. de la Soc. Méd. d’Em.” Vol. III. p. 311); “Opus. Scelt.,” Vol. XV. p. 113; “Giornale Fis. Med.,” Vol. II. pp. 115, 131 (letter of B. Carminati); Marsiglio Landriani, “Lettera,” etc., 1776; Lettre d’un ami au Comte Prosper Albo (“Bibl. de Turin,” 1792, Vol. I. p. 261; Jour. de Phys., Tome XLI. P. 57); “Comment Bonon. Scient.,” Vol. VII. p. 363; account of the experiments made by MM. Cortambert and Gaillard, reported in “Mém. de la Soc. Méd. d’Em.,” Vol. I. pp. 232, 235; G. Klein’s “Dissert. de Métal,” etc., Maintz, 1794; Ostwald’s Klassiker, No. 52, p. 4; C. H. Wilkinson, “Elements of Galvanism,” etc., London, 1804, 2 Vols. passim; Wm. C. Wells, “Obs. on the Influence,” etc. (Phil. Trans., 1795, Pt. XI. p. 246); E. G. Robertson (An. de Ch., 1801, Vol. XXXVII. p. 132; Jour. de Paris, 10, 15 and 17 Fructidor de l’An. VIII); Paul Louis Simon, “Beschreibung neuengalvanisch,” etc., “Resultate,” etc., and “Versuche,” etc., all published in 1801 (L. W. Gilbert’s Annalen, 1801, Book V, An. de Chimie, No. 121, p. 106); L. W. Gilbert’s Book VI of the Annalen, containing the “Memoirs on Galvanism,” by J. L. Boeckmann, L. A. von Arnim, Paul Erman, M. Gruner and C. H. Pfaff; C. Dupuytren, “Faits Particuliers,” etc., 1801; J. B. Trommsdorff, “Expér. Galv.,” 1801; M. Rouppe’s letter of Aug. 28, 1801, in Van Mons’ Jour. de Ch., Vol. I. pp. 106, 108; M. Bichat (Sue, “Hist. du Galv.,” II. p. 216); A. M. Vassalli-Eandi (Jour. de Phys., Frimaire, An. X. p. 476); C. F. Hellwag and M. Jacobi fils, “Erfahrungen,” etc., 1802; M. le Comte de Pusckin’s experiments on Galvanism, made Sept. and Dec. 1801, with a colonne tournante (Sue, “Hist. du Galv.,” Vol. II. pp. 257, 258); Al. Volta, in Jour. de Leipzig, and in “Comment ... Med. gestis,” 1792; Johann Mayer, “Abh. ... Galvani, Valli, Carminati u. Volta ...” Prag, 1793); Junoblowiskiana Society (“Comment ... Med. gestis,” 1793); “Imperial Dictionary of Universal Biography,” Wm. McKenzie London, n. d., Vol. II. p. 546; M. Cortambert (“Mém ... Soc. ... d’Emul.,” I. p. 232); M. Payssé (“Jour. de la Soc. des Pharm.,” first year, p. 100); Geo. Couvier (Jour. de Physique, Vol. VII. p. 318; “Mém. des Soc. Sav. et Lit.,” Vol. I. p. 132), 1801; C. Mathieu (“Rec. de la Soc. d’Agr. ... d’Autun,” An. X. p. 21), 1802; Ponton d’Amécourt, “Exposé du Galvanisme,” Paris, 1803; Joseph Weber’s works, published in 1802–1803, 1815, 1816, and those of J. K. F. Hauff, Marburg and Leipzig, 1803, 1804; M. Curtet (Jour. de Van Mons., No. VI. p. 272; Jour. de Physique, An. XI. p. 54), 1803; William Meade (“On the origin and progress of Galvanism”), Dublin, 1805; J. C. Reil (Jour. de Van Mons., No. IV. p. 104; Sue, “Hist. du Galv.,” Vol. IV. p. 26); J. A. Heidmann (Phil. Mag., Vol. XXVIII. p. 97), 1807; Sir Richard Phillips, “Electricity and Galvanism explained ...” (Phil. Mag., Vol. LVI. p. 195), London, 1820; B. G. Sage, “Recherches ... Galvanisme”; Leopold Nobili, “Sur le courant....” Genève, 1827.
A.D. 1786.—Hemmer (J. J.), celebrated physician and secretary of the Meteor. Society of Mannheim, gives, in the “Transactions of the Electoral Society,” an account of what have been pronounced the most complete series of experiments ever made upon the electricity of the human body. They absolutely show that the human subject possesses no species of electrical organs which are under the regulation of the will. Of his many observations, the following are worth recording: He found that the electricity of the body is common to all ages and sexes; that its intensity and character often vary in the same body (in 2422 experiments, it was 1252 times positive, 771 times negative and 399 times imperceptible); that the electricity of the body is naturally positive, it being always so when subject to no violent exertion, and that when the body is subjected to sudden or violent motion the electricity becomes negative, the case also when the body experiences either cold or extreme lassitude.
References.—“Encycl. Brit.,” Vol. VIII, 1855, p. 571; “Rheinische Beiträgen zur Gelehrsamkeit” for 1781, Fifth Book, pp. 428–466; Van Swinden, “Recueil,” etc., La Haye, 1784, Vols. I and II passim; “Observ. sur la Phys.,” July, 1780; Phil. Mag., 1799, Vol. V. pp. 1, 140; “Comment. Acad. Theod.-Palat.,” Vols. IV, V and VI of Phys.; “Mém. de l’Acad. de Mannheim,” Vol. IV; “Pfalzbayr. Beiträge” for 1782.
A.D. 1787.—Lomond—Lomont—(Claude Jean-Baptiste), a very capable French machinist, and “one who has a genius for invention,” is the first to introduce a successful electric telegraph consisting of but one wire. Of this the following account appears under date Oct. 16, 1787, in Arthur Young’s “Voyage Agronomique en France” (“Travels”), fourth edition, Vol. I. p. 79: “You write two or three words on a paper; he takes it with him into an adjoining room and turns a machine in a cylinder case, on the top of which is an electrometer having a pretty little ball of pith of a quill suspended by a silk thread; a brass wire connects it to a similar cylinder and electrometer in a distant apartment, and his wife, on observing the movements of the corresponding ball, writes the words which it indicates. From this it appears that he (Lomond) has made an alphabet of motions. As the length of the brass wire makes no difference in the effect, you could correspond with it at a great distance, as, for example, with a besieged city or for objects of much more importance. Whatever be the use that shall be made of it, the discovery is an admirable one.”
References.—Ed. Highton, “Elec. Tel.,” 1852, p. 38; Sabine, “Elec. Tel.,” pp. 10–11; Shaffner, “Manual,” pp. 132, 133; Vail’s “History,” etc., p. 121; “Appleton’s Encycl.,” 1871, Vol. XV. p. 335.