[Editions:] Stevenson, J., Roxburghe Club, London, 1838; Wright, T., Percy Society, no. xxxix, London, 1843 (text of C); Stratmann, F. H., Krefeld, 1868 (critical edition); *Wells, J. E., Boston, 1907 (parallel texts with notes); Gadow, W., Palaestra, no. lxv, Berlin, 1909 (text of C with variants of J).
[Literature:] Borsch, J., Ueber Metrik und Poetik der altenglischen Dichtung The Owl and the Nightingale, Münster, 1883; *Breier, W., Eule und Nachtigall, Halle, 1910, completed in Morsbachs Studien, no. xxxix, Halle, 1910; ES xlii. 306, 408; Ebisch, W., Zur Syntax des Verbs im altengl. Gedicht Eule und Nachtigall, Leipzig, 1905; Gadow, W., Eule und Nachtigall, Berlin, 1907 (completed in edition as above); Kenyon, J. S., Journal of English and Germanic Philology, xii. 572-92; Koch, J., Anglia, Beiblatt, xxi. 227-40; Noelle, H., Die Sprache des altengl. Gedichts von der Eule und Nachtigall, Göttingen, 1870; Sherman, L. A., A Grammatical Analysis of the OE. Poem The Owl and the Nightingale, Transactions of the American Philological Association, vi. 1875. Wells, J., Anglia, xxxiii. 252-69; Modern Language Notes, xxv. 108, xxvi. 139-41.
[Phonology:] (1) of C. The spellings of (a) ll. 1-353 and (b) ll. 354-437 are distinguished, when they show a characteristic difference. Significant rhymes are recorded. Oral a is a, fare 422, tale 3; a before nasals wavers between a (10 times) and o (14), can 126, vram 119, man 334, mani 399, þan 22, 24, þane 39, wanne 308, bigon 13, con 199, from 154, monnes 254, moni 355, nome 405, þonkes 70, won 240, wone 243, wonne 38, exceptionally þenne (þænne); a before lengthening groups is o, honde 400, onde 297, longe 45, tonge 112, but andsuare 105, answare 55, 277; and is and 4, an 7 &c.; man, indefinite, me 32; ferden 432 r. w. uerde, descends from fēran. æ is regularly a, bare 56, 106 r. w. answare, glad 312, hadde 275 r. w. iladde, smal 73 r. w. al. e is e, bet 21, hen 291; before lengthening groups, ende 386, felde 357: (a) suich 283, suiche 134 is from a form in i, (b) swucche 354, swuch 374 from one in y: a diphthong has developed in imeind 18, 306 (gemenged, comp. 451/25). i is i, bile 79, chirche 339, is 388 r. w. wis, (a) wile 141 r. w. sckile; before lengthening groups, bringe 311, linde 393, but wsome (= ysome) 136, (b) wulle 373, nulleþ 407, wuste 10 r. w. custe, neltu 106 (nelt), wolcumeð 318, with o written in this text for u from e by labial influence, comp. wulcume L 8528 &c., grulde 98 (*gryllan). o is o, bodi 73, horne 234, word 45, wolde 128, nolde 115, but walde 370 r. w. scholde; þane 414 is LWS. þane, wan 334, hwan: on prep. is reduced to an 239 and often to a 20 &c. œ, i-umlaut of o, still lingers in seorhe ON 1599. u is u, cumeþ 298, luueþ 188, wunest 254, but o in lo`u´ue, where `u´ was possibly meant as a correction of o, ouerkome 386, wode 322 r. w. rude, woning 403, in which o is associated with m, n, w; u before lengthening groups is u, dumb 294, tunge 194, but tonge r. w. iþrunge. y is u, kume 314 (perhaps with from cuman), murie 261, vuele 63, stude 410 (styde) r. w. mide, muchel 404, muche 413 (mycel); before lengthening groups, cunde 88, hurne 14; but unrounded in þincþ 430, þincþe 46, þinche 262, wirche 340; wrchen 286 is probably French writing for wurchen.
ā is regularly o, bore 286, hoten 192, swo 76, 381, so 52, 289, 415, o 249, 331, þos 95, but a 45, 104, 112, an 4, 80, Portesham 434, swa ON 1577, wa 425, þeos 413 (þās); before two consonants o, wostu 334, but axest 325, 329, hattest 191. ǣ1 is regularly e, brede 130, ledeþ 216, sprede 315 r. w. mede, þen 386, but þare 28 &c., þan 156 (3); before two consonants e, fleshe 83, ileste 257, meshe 84 (*mǣscan), neuer 60, but iladde 276, wranne 360. ǣ1 is elsewhere sometimes ea, eauer ON 922, deale ON 954, bileaue ON 1688. ǣ2 is also e, forlete 36, rede 425; before two consonants, oferd 277, but a in lat 194 (4), lateþ 372 (3), ofdrad 387, þar 16 &c., þareafter 271, þareuore 210, whar 64, war 392, uareuore 203, 333, these pronominal forms probably come from shortened ǣ: before two consonants, fnast 44, raddest 115, misraddest 116. ē is e, breme 158, kene 212; before two consonants, dest 49, 237 r. w. preost, spedde 435, but dost 307, dostu 174, 289, doþ 112, 238 with o from the plural. ī is i, wile 155, pipe 22, suiþe ON 376; before two consonants, þriste 127 r. w. liste, wisdom 399, but (a) suþe 2, 12, 111 from swȳþe with absorption of w, comp. such from swuch. ō is o, brode 93, ilome 49, noþeles 105, but neoþeles 357 (15 times in Layamon, see 452/8); before two consonants, blostme 315, softe 6. ū is u, kuþe 332, tukest 63, hule 4 &c., but houle 428, a French writing. ȳ is u, hud 120, lutle 356, þuuele 214 r. w. foȝle, but litle 419, þe 19, 34, 401, forþe 69, vorþi 65, hwi 407, whi 106, wi 174 (hwī).
ea before r + cons. is a, areȝ 285, ȝare 171 r. w. aiware, hardeliche 280, þaref 146, but eardingstowe 28; the i-umlaut before a lengthening group is e in uerde 433 r. w. ferden: cierm is chirme 221 (see Bülb. 187 anm.) but bichermet 215. ea before l + cons. is a, al 8 and the numerous forms of eall, hale 2 r. w. dale, schaltu 165; before lengthening groups o, which descends from Anglian unbroken lengthened a, as in Layamon 452/15, bold 233 (3), boldeliche 279, biholde 71, holde 3 (4), wolde 367, but once belde 358: without umlaut are falt 37, halt 32. eo before r + cons. is o, for 328, vorre 243, horte 37, 43, rorde 227; before a lengthening group, ilorned 172; but daisterre 244 r. w. vorre: forbernest 297 is from bærnan; wyr words are worse 219 r. w. mershe, worste 10, worþ 283, wrs 34, elsewhere wurs ON 793, wrþ 256, unwrþ 255, elsewhere wurþ ON 769. eo before l + cons. is seen in sulue 69. The u-umlaut of a is wanting in hauekes 207 (3). eo, u-umlaut of e gives houene 335, 346 r. w. steuene, 350. eo, å-umlaut of e is seen in feole 415, but uele 20, and fale 365, auale 410 (feala). eo, u- and å-umlaut of i is o (for eo) in honne 66 r. w. kunne, hore 216 &c., noþerward 100, soþþe 240, but (b) heore 418. ea after palatals is a, schal 143, ȝaf 55, 105, aȝaf 95, before nasal, schame 50 (3), but schome 123. ie after g is e, biȝete 344, uorȝete 343, underȝete 124, ȝeueþ 419, but ȝiueþ 416, ȝiue 410. ie after sc is i in schille 98, 364, e in schelde 356 r. w. felde. gef, EWS. gief is ȝif 51 &c., ȝef 429. eo after sc is o, scholde 371 r. w. walde, sholdest 54, short 73, but Anglian schulde 390 r. w. wule. eom is Angl. am 126, 212, nam 387, heom, hom 62, 94.
ēa is regularly e, blete 57, dreme 230; before two consonants, cheste 133 r. w. unwerste, but earen 254, unneaþe ON 1605, dreim 21 (a scribal error). The i-umlaut is e, grettre 74, ȝeme 345, ihere 180 r. w. fere, iherde 2, ihert 406, but ihire 228. ēo is (a) o, a French writing, blo 108, 319, bon 198, 342, bo 107 (9), boþ 75 (4), flo 33 (4), flon 106, floþ 214, ho 19 (13), hom 353, iso 243, isoþ 302, lof 159 (3), oftoned 190, so 34, swore 73, tone 50, prostes 351, þo 26, 155, þos 41 (4), holde 12, hold 100, athold 270, bihold 30, but the corrector has added e in preost 238 r. w. dest, weode 236; (b) eo, beo, beoþ 378, 418, heo 360 (9), heom 407, 408, but ho 368. The i-umlaut is seen in atfliþ 37 (Angl. flīþ), þuster 154 (3). gesīene is isene 122, 211 r. w. kene; gīet, ȝet 225. ēo from ō after g is o in ȝomere 293 r. w. sumere, ēa from ā after sc, e in schede 153.
a + g is aȝ, draȝe 209. æ + g is ai, dai 89 &c., vaire 15 &c., mai 141 (4), fawre 138, miswritten for fayre, but ei in seide 9, 289, 424, 265 r. w. rede, 325 r. w. dede, rhymes which indicate sede 33, 173 representing sǣde as the original form, so ised 273 r. w. red is gesǣd. e + g is ei, aȝein 431, pleie 169, wei 224, under this head come seist 50 (4) from segst, seiþ 132 from segð, seie 173 from sege: aȝen 7, 314 is agēn, snailes 87, snægl. i + h is iȝ, adiȝte 242, wiȝt 312, or ih, diht 399; for iht, ist is written in mist 78: final ig is i, bodi 73. o + g is oȝ, itoȝen 368. u + g is uȝ, fuȝele 64 r. w. vuele, but the spirant has been absorbed in fuelkunne 65; foȝle 213 r. w. þuuele, is a French spelling. y + h is unrounded in hiȝte 208, hiȝteþ 314. ā + g is oȝ, oȝe 195, þroȝe 196. ǣ1 + g is ei in eiþer 9, 141, but aiþer 7, aiware 172. ǣ2 + g is seen in iseȝe 303. ō + g is oȝ, boȝe 15, woȝe 120. ō + h is oȝ, broȝte 150, noȝt 58 (nōht), roȝte 305, þoȝte 269, but oh in brohte 369. u + h is uȝ, þuȝte 21, ofþuȝte 275. ea + h is eȝ, iseȝ 29, ouerseȝ 30; the i-umlaut is iȝ, miȝt 64, 177, miȝte 42, 411, miȝtest 192, niȝt 89, but mihte 392. eo + ht, ariȝt 278, briȝter 108, viȝte 128, riȝt 76, riȝte 120 r. w. liȝte 398, but riht 379, unrihtfulnesse 385; bituxen 390 represents WS. betux: the i-umlaut gives isiþ 285, but isoþ 302 without umlaut. ēa + g, h is (a) eȝe 304 r. w. iseȝe, neȝ 44, þeȝ 48, but þoȝ 220, (b) þeg 367, þah 422. ēo + h is (a) iȝ, liȝte 119 r. w. riȝte, (b) ih, lihtlich 402, 417; the i-umlaut is seen in fliȝst 89, 183, fliȝt 132, 224, atfliþ 37: dīegel is diȝele 2. ā + w is ow, crowe 220, croweþ 251, snov 308, asnowe 291, owel 80 (*āwul), but nawt 383; clawe 109, 110 is probably clawe. ī + w, howe 108 (Anglian hēow). ō + w, bigrowe 27, -stowe 28, but nouþer 375 (nōwþer). ēa + w, gleu 149, unþeu 150, but sewi 107. ēo + w, eu 436, ower 379, tro d. 316, representing occasional dat. trēo.
In bisemar 104 a appears for e, in svikel- 118, 119 e for o, in munekes 347 e for u, in gladur 19, uairur 108, u for e, but gladdere ON 737. ā is o in oferd 277, elsewhere aferd 288. e has been added in areȝ 285 (earg), areȝþe 282, arehþe 359, bareȝ 286, bisemar 104, hardeliche 280, narewe 68, steuene 345, 363, þaref 146, lost in warni 246, as already in OE. warnian; houẹneriche 335, houẹneliȝte 350, represent heofon-rīce, heofon-lēoht, similarly þornewode 322, þarẹuore 210, warẹuore 203, 333. The prefix in atschet 44 is oþ; be- is regularly bi-, bigrede 220, bitelle 199; a in adun 164 is of; the prefix ge- is fully preserved as i-; the suffix -hede, 118 &c. is *hǣd.
w is written u in suiche 134, 283, tuengst 112, but more frequently v, sval 7, tosvolle 101; it stands for wu in wrchen 286, wrs 34, wrþ 256, unwrþ 255, for wi in wle 284, for uu in wl 31, wle 35 (fūle); in wole 8, as Breier explains, the original had uuele (yfele), the copyist took uu as w and read wole (fūle). Metathesis of r is seen in unwerste 134; rr is simplified in for 328. n is lost in þane 39 &c., wane 298, 352, ope 124, on is often reduced to a, adwole 420 &c.; nn is simplified in hen 291, kun 332. For f initial, f, u, v are used indiscriminately, faire 114, vaire 15, fiȝt 132, viȝte 128, for 328, vorre 243, foruorþ 276, for 32, uor 19, vor 43, vram 119, from 62; it is once w in waste (fæst), and w = uu in wl 31, wle 35; between vowels f is regularly u, buue 164, auale 410 beside fale 365, touore 371, similarly eure 251, cliure 78 (3), sulue 67, but v in eve 41, over 64, f in afere 177, aferd 288, ifare 278, oferd 277; in other positions it is commonly f, efne 229, stefne 230. t is lost in blosme 16 as already in OE. blōsma, nel tu 106, doubled in sittest 89; for t, d is written in ad 241; tt is simplified in wit 420. For d, t is written in ihert 406; d is mostly omitted in an 7 &c., beside occasional and 4, 294, also in answare 55, 277, as rarely in OE., but andsuare 105; spene 121 is a new back formation from the pt. tense and pp. of spend (NED); dd is simplified in bed- 240, midel- 349. For þ, d appears in haued 123, lodlich 32 (3), t in witute 139, 200, bigredet 67, biledet 68, hatiet 186, schuniet 185, singet 152, wit 56, 222; dostu 174, 289 is a compendium for dost þu, similarly axestu 329, wenestu 219. sć is sch, schal 143, schende 210, bischopen 404, schuniet 185, but occasionally sh, shal 258, ishote 23, mershe 220, and once s, sewi 107. The stop c is regularly k before e and i, unker 107, loki 56, also in kon 326, kume 314, kun 332, kunne 144, kuþe 332, and ck in eck 130, haueck 219, otherwise c, cunne 47, 48, cuþe 360, hauec 223, spac 274: cc is ck, flockes 216, þicke 17, 308; it is simplified in stoc 25: (b) ah 357 (6) is Anglian ah, but (a) ac 83 (6). cw is (a) qu, quaþ 143, but (b) cwaþ 372 (5). č is expressed by ch, chirche 339, ich 1, swuche 354, unwrenche 125, ilich 232, 234, but ilike 113 r. w. biswike. čč is cch, recche 60, wrecche 251, but reche 58; čǧ is gg, alegge 272, hegge 17, 59 (*hecg), legge 164, segge 18. Palatal g is written ȝ, ȝare 171, ȝaf 105, areȝþe 285, murȝþe 257 (3), areȝ 285, bareȝ 286, folȝeþ 223, isuolȝe 102, unwroȝen 118, but arehþe 359, ibolwe 101. ng appears in lengþe 130, strengþe 129, but strencþe 356 (Horn, Beiträge, 60). h has been added initially in his 404, hunke 376, hure 141, and dropped in abbe 130, is 281. hr is r in rise 19; hl, l in lud 6, luste 99; hw is hw in hwile ON 1591, wh in what 60, but otherwise w, aiware 172, wat 141 &c., wan 334, wile 6 (3), wa 425, wo 152, wonne 38, wone 243, won 240, wider 342.
(2) Of J. Mainly a record of divergences from C. a is more frequently o before nasals, grome 49, lome 375, mon 334, 355, and before lengthening groups, ondsware 105, onsware 55. Beside hwanne 121, 308, hwenne occurs 38 (4). ewel 80 takes its initial vowel from æl. æ is e in hedde 102 (3), queþ 372 (3), wes 1 (7). e, sweche 354, but such 374, suche 134 (swylc). i is often written in French fashion y, especially in conjunction with m, n, u, h, myne 51, ynne 208, clyures 111, fyht 132; willaþ is wille 373; welcometh 318 has wel substituted for wil; with cleures 84, 206 comp. ‘cleafres,’ AR 102/5, ‘claures,’ Corpus MS. o, wolde 370. u, tunge 37, vnne 382, but schonyeþ 185, vowele 213, a French use. ā, hwo 425, no 202, meaning nor, but naþeles 105, 357. ǣ1 dayrewe 244, wrenne 360 (3); eoch 231, euche 151, euych 187 descend from ylc, comp. 288/8; meysse 84 (*mǣscan), vleysse 83, with ǣ before sć, may, in this text, be French spellings, but comp. 428/6. ǣ2 is with fewer exceptions e, efne 239, let 194 (4), leteþ 372 (3), ofdred 387. ē, dome 426 is misspelt for deme. ī, swiþe 2, 12, swyþe 149. ȳ, hwy, with y written for i. ea before r + cons. is e in erdingstowe 28. eo before r + cons. is eo, veor 328, veorre 243, heorte 37, reorde 227, steorre 244, ileorned 172. ie, bichirmeþ 215. No umlaut in heuene 346 r. w. stefne, heueryche 335, fele 415, but veole 20. eo, u- and å-umlaut of i, heonne 66, heore 216 &c. neþerward 100, seþþe 240. ea after palatal and before nasal, schome 50, 374, schomye 117. ie after g is regularly e, yeue 410, yeueþ 416, 419. gief is if 283 &c.: heom, heom 62 &c. ēa, eren 254, drem 21; the i-umlaut, ihere 228. ēo is mostly preserved, fleo 33, heo 33, heolde 51, leof 159, preostes 351, teone 50, but he 19, holde 12, lesen 267, prest 238, swere 73.