[Accidence:] Strong declension of masc. and neut. nouns. In the s. n. a. dine 646, heuenriche 18, 292, hirde 33, bale 379, golsipe 245, se 404, tre 508, 516, wete 190, 209 have e corresponding to their OE. vocalic ending, bodi 172, sti 152 have lost final g; seppandẹ 356 and haliweie 612 r. w. seie have added e; mere 448 is shortened from meremenn. Gen. -es, bukes 330, foxes 314, sees 407, but heuenriche 558; brest 121, 160 is a composition form: dat. -e, bale 172, bile 70 and 15 others with vowel termination in the nom., hauen 183 has added n (nunnation, 457/11), dede 31, dele 4 and 31 others with inflection, of which ouese 362 is the only word of more than one syllable: without inflection are bodi 130 (3), drigtin 104, meiden 23, stel 419, der 322, 627, rem 13, 611 and 90 others mostly with long stem vowel or of more than one syllable; always o dei 576, bi dai 47 &c.; many examples are in rhyme as mod 249, 348, muð 395, ðogt 501, 559, wold 620. The pl. n. a. of masculines ends in -es, chaueles 397, witches 427, daies 109, fodredes 361; there are no weak forms: neuters are limes 41, 63, sipes 411, 417, 454, bodes 136, 213, lides 16, sep 34, 483, ger 491, 492, ðing 358: datives have -es, berges 481, breides 344, briddes 660, finnes 445, ðewes 143, ðornes 237, limes 131, wiles 297, but der 603. Of the fem. nouns of the strong declension mire 175, neddre 107, 129, same 193, widue 578 have e corresponding to their OE. vocalic ending in the nom., dede 468, 469, sowle 586 have added e, all others are without e, culuer 650, ned 142, woning 662 (the verbal substantives are rarely inflected in any case). Genitives are sinnes 158, sowles 103: birde 117 (comp. byrdtīd), erðe 630, helle 638 (comp. hellewīte), heuene 638 (comp. heuen 170), kirke 134, 586, soule 158 may be genitives, but are more probably composition forms. Dat. -e, birdene 289, filde 160, godcundnesse 644, manhede 567, migte 587, werlde 106, sineginge 149, stefninge 451, but blis 140, 638, hid 120, magt 426, migt 416, tunder 419, werld 201, and the verbal nouns lesing 478, reming 542, sending 339, swiking 477, wissing 359 are without inflection. In the acc. forðward 160, migt 234, 532, ned 659, stund 309, 408 and the verbal nouns billing 316, 338, foxing 333, giscing 245, drowing 567, siniging 256, tokning 463, wissing 246, 255 are without inflection, bote 150, guðhede 39, nede 100, 216, 280, soule 172, 478, steringe 451 with 27 others have e, besides fille 319, 373, forbisne 322. Pl. n. are fedres 56; dat. harmdedes 299, misdedes 151, sinnes 75; a. forbisnes 219, kindes 218, seftes 356 (sometimes masc.), sinnes 159, stefnes 448, agte 477. Nouns of the weak declension have -e in the nom., bane 370, sunne 12; d. make 576, erðchine 308; a. fode 64 (5), wille 330, but fod 207, licham 214 before a vowel: genitives are belles 541, huntes 548: pl. n. egen 44, 80, fleges 366, husebondes 299; dat. egen 16, 87; a. egen 55, willen 515. The minor declensions are represented by fet (steppes) pl. a. 5; teð pl. a. 318; man s. n. 73, mannes s. g. 148, man s. d. 444, a. 124, men pl. n. 305, sipmen 451, manne pl. g. 24, men ?pl. d. 144, manne 359, men pl. a. 428; boc s. n. 350, boke s. d. 38 (4); furg s. d. 307; gos s. a. 302; nigte s. d. 588, bi nigt 47, 150, o nigt 576, nigt s. a. 582; faðer s. n. 13, fader 30, s. d. 640; broder s. n. 287, s. a. 535; fend s. n. 349.
Adjectives which in OE. end in a vowel have -e throughout, briche 592, eche 139, minde 263, newe 210, softe 176, but swet s. d. neut. 231 (comp. swētnes, swōt) and merk s. d. f. 341 have lost e; those in -ig lose g, attrie 228 (with ie for i), droui 407, holi 642, redi 311, weri 511. Weak inflections are s. voc. cristene 133, d. rigte 70, sinfule 340, a. olde 210, 581: strong are s. n. f. bare 121, ilike 442, like 444, s. d. m. rigte 435, s. d. f. quike 253; others are uninflected in the singular: mikel s. n. m. 565 has d. mikle 542, but mikel 230, pl. n. mikle 433, 536: litel s. n. neut. 131 has s. a. f. little 200, pl. n. 432. The pl. n. has -e, kolde 486, leue, loðe 594, warre, wise 456; the exceptions are all predicative, fagen 394, 415, kold 495, siker 207, strong 63, twifold 471, uncuð 396, war 204, wod 250; dat. -e, iuele 343, wite 599, but dern 75 r. w. ern; acc. -e, erðliche 213, but brigt 55 r. w. fligt. ān as article unstressed is a 28, 46 &c., before consonants, an 391, 282 before vowels and h, twice 106, 596 before w, divided in a neilond 387, 414, while the numeral and indefinite pronoun is on 268, 530, (on) on 223, 635, one s. d. neut. 264; āna, alone, is one 579, 580, 622: nān as adj. is no 148, 444 &c., non 64 &c., none s. d. neut. 65, as pronoun, non 267, 271, 285, 494, 556, 597. Adjectives used as nouns with inflection are s. d. geuelike 214, 593, gode 65, nakede 165, pl. grete 400, sinfule 167, selcuðes 441, smale 399: nouns used as adjectives are flerd, fox 351. Comparatives and superlatives have -e, s. fairere 597, more 194, beste 514, firste 552, moste 384, swetteste 392, pl. eldere 171, 241, but best 667 r. w. nest, vuemest 639 r. w. gast, most 501 before vowel.
The personal pronouns are ic 38 (6), before vowel, h or palatal g, i 37 (5) before consonants, we, wes (= we es) 651, ur pl. g. 285, 661, vs, ðu, tu 133 &c., ðe, te 142, gu pl. d. 549, 575. The pronoun of the third person is s. n. he m. 2, 330, ge f. 175, 179, get (= ge it) 195, it neut. 29, 450, itt 601, d. him m. 5, 521, hire f. 184, 499, ire 183, a. him m. 13, 128, hire f. 299; pl. n. he 264, 625, g. her 556, d. hem 281, 546, a. 369, is 7, 137, 304. Reflexives are us 663, ðe 160, him s. d. 64, 103, 109, himself 65, hire 372, him s. a. 8 (13), hire 178, 365, hem pl. a. 413, 421, 484: definitive is himseluen 520: possessives are s. ðin 156, tin 161, ði, before consonant, 160, 478, pl. ðine 151, tine 159, ðin 477 before vowel; s. his 3 &c., pl. hise 16 &c., his, before vowel, 44, 55; hire 179, 496; vre 19 &c., here 280, 427. The definite article is ðe without inflection, te 13, 623, de 165, 192, atte 134, 361, 586: s. ðat 18 &c., tat 18, pl. ðo 432, 604 are demonstratives. The compound demonstrative is s. ðis 77, tis 73, pl. ðise 398. The relatives are ðe 19; it means, of which 621, during which 201, and ðat 13, it means, in which 517, on which 206, about which 191, that which 184, 470, dat, for whom, 634. Interrogatives are wat 127, 133, 170, wos 628, wilc 4; the correlative is swilc 248, swilk 338. Indefinites are wo so 335, 577; wat 95; man 2, 194, 221, 304; sum 461; oni 378; oðres s. g. 273, oðer s. d. 378, a. 267, pl. oðre 276 (6), oðer 603; an oðer 10, 262; ilk 82, ilc 256, ilkines 180; eurilc 257, eurilc 286; mani 429, pl. manie 441 (4), manikines 358; fele 297, 463; al 54 &c., all 211, pl. alle 5, 241.
Only three verbs have the infinitive in -e, biswike 327 r. w. dernelike, chare 457 r. w. ware, rede 38 r. w. guðhede, one or two in -ien, luuien 135, ?hertien 276, the rest, in number 111, of which 18 are of the second weak conjugation, end in -en. The dat. inf. is not inflected, its sign is to (31) or for to (6). Presents are s. 1. haue 549, mene 248, seie 557 (4); 2. hauest 137, forbredes, forgelues, forwurðes 138; 3. falleð 58 (4), wakeð 33, wuneð 401 (5) and over 200 others in -eð; hatieð 304, rotieð 311; forsaket 81, quenchet 256; atbrested 548, bekned 213, gingid 238, bilimpes 275; contract verbs, fleð 123, 165, teð 48 r. w. seð, 274, seð 49, sloð 329 r. w. loþ, contracted forms are abit 581 r. w. sit, bet 213, bit 195, 211, 370, 379 (read biteð in all these places), bit 330, bit 192 (read bideð), biwalt 521 r. w. bihalt, fet 214, 337 r. w. ket, 605, fint 209 (read findeð), flet 386 r. w. get, fret 319, 373 (read freteð in both places), gelt 316, geld 338, hitt 365, lat 327, 328, lið 11 (read lieð as in l. 15), seit 577, sit 520, 576, 580 r. w. abit, smit 391, underset 516 r. w. bet, stant 2; pl. 1. hauen 176 (3), wunen 201, haue we 295, fele we 552, haue 659; 3. beren 278, cumen 276 (4), haten 299, noten 488, sundren 577, waken 453; sen 413, ten 266, hatien 305, cume 536: subjunctive s. 3. fare 99, se 122, tide 499, but derie 186; pl. 1. bimene we 663, leue we 590, luue we 587, 590, seke we 207, wende we 588: imperative s. 2. bid 150, help 144, swic 149, herkne 506, newe 141, reche 585, sei 159, deme 145; pl. 2. hereð 45, muneð 575. Past of Strong Verbs: I a. s. 3. lai 28, 633; subj. s. 2. soge 386; 3. sete 388: I b. s. 3. bar 24, kam 28, 352, cam 564; pl. 3. broken 242; subj. s. 3. come 22: I c. s. 3. wan 632, wurð 566: II. s. 3. ros 31, 637, steg 639: III. s. 3. ches 586: IV. s. 3. sop 356, stod 557: V. s. 2. hightest 133, hightes 135, 161; 3. fel 551, let 642, slep 635; ?subj. pl. 1. helde we 173. Participle present: V. gangande 530; past: I b. broken 137, forbroken 108: I c. bred 117, bunden 443, doluen 27, forbroiden, forwurden 108, towrong 42 r. w. unstrong: II. fordriuen 411, sinen 12, writen 572: III. forloren 69: IV. faren 589: V. IV. waxen 445: V. biholden 512, fallen 570, sawen 599. Past of Weak Verbs: s. 3. dennede 23, filstnede 30, seide 191, ðogte 354; pl. 3. remeden 561, suggeden 559, wuneden 493. Participles present: cripelande 111, figtande 128, secande 536; past: cloðed 124, cristned 134, elded 139, eried 308, herd 459, idigt 364, ikindled 10, lered 239, offrigt 625, seid 549, set 220, tokned 627, told 621, 628, trendled 600; inflected are cloðedẹ s. d. 166, forbisnede s. d. 464. Minor Groups: og pr. s. 263 (3), ogen 1 pr. pl. 210 (3), pr. pl. 653; can pr. s. 79, canne (= can he) 534, cunen pr. pl. 457, cune 2 pr. s. subj. 148, cunne pr. s. subj. 7 (3); dar pr. s. 647, dure 2 pr. s. subj. 145; salt 2 pr. s. 155, sal pr. s. 16 &c., sulen 1 pr. pl. 203, 292, pr. pl. 485, 594, sulde pt. s. 123; mai pr. s. 110 (9), maig 64, 400, 433, mugen 1 pr. pl. 323, 643, pr. pl. 503, muge pr. s. subj. 126, 187, migte pt. s. 21, 554, 556, migten pt. pl. 560; moten 1 pr. pl. 210, mote 2 pr. s. subj. 151; ben inf. 84 (4), to ben dat. inf. 263, 653, art 2 pr. s. 140, 162, is pr. s. 10, 662, es 183, nes 518, beð 313, ben 1 pr. pl. 34, 204, be we 205, arn pr. pl. 41 (11), aren 394, 415, ben 450, senden 63, 441, be pr. s. subj. 21, 615, ben 1 pr. pl. subj. 207, 293, be we 589, 655, ben pr. pl. subj. 282, be 2 pr. s. imp. 163, was pt. s. 26 &c., weren 1 pt. pl. 250, pt. pl. 80, 559, 625, were 2 pt. s. subj. 134, pt. s. subj. 61 (7), wore 578; wile 1 pr. s. 575, wille 37, wile pr. s. 71 (12), wille 34 (5), wulle 634, wilen pr. pl. 367, wullen 314, wile pr. s. subj. 4, 327, 328, wuldest 2 pt. s. 385, wulde pt. s. 553, 2 pt. s. subj. 74, pt. s. subj. 353, 354; don inf. 330, 531, ðon 328, fordon 354, to don dat. inf. 212, 515, 661, doð pr. s. 141 (10), do we 1 pr. pl. subj. 172, 205, 657, dede pt. s. 171, don pp. 663; gon inf. 155, 225, goð pr. s. 66 (5), gon pr. pl. 482, 491, 1 pr. pl. subj. 35, 254, go 2 pr. s. imp. 157, undergede pt. s. 568.
Noteworthy among adverbs are lic, equally, 662, nede, of necessity, 129 (nīede), ðer wile, whilst, 648, welle, very, 18 (also in Layamon, 29622), which seems to have added a superfluous adverbial e; among prepositions, mitte 454, 546, one 334, 388, onẹ 420; conjunctions, ⁊ (ant), meaning if, 2, er, or, 99 &c., wiles, whilst, 88 (4), wor so, wheresoever, 602 (4).
[Vocabulary:] The Scandinavian element is large: ai 46 (7), arn 41 &c., aren 394, 415, blast 541, bone 101, boðe 47, boðen 181, boden 525, brest 458 (OE. byrst would in this text be birst), brennen 249, brenning 229, brinneð 227, bro 598 (OWScand. brá), calleð 527, call(ing) 563, costes 284, derflike 313, feg 160, fro 31 &c., gapeð 390, gres 182, heil 59, ille 410, ill(ing) 317, ket 336, lage 15 &c., leiðe 357, oc 55, 159, or 76, 116, 119, rapelike 178, reiseð 13, reisen 553, renneð 178, scaðe 447, skemt(ing) 332, skies 50, swideð 54, takeð 71, til 12, ðeðen 364, ðog 21 &c., (un)skil 331, wille 35, wrengðe 69, wrong 62, probably hileð 318, vncost 148, wore 578, possibly fikeð 532, listneð 306 (comp. hlystan), liuenoðe 200, (o) twinne 195; influenced in form are atbrested 548, atbrosten 458, come 664, frame 323 (fremu), in meaning, onde 310. French are bec 42, capun 300, caue 186, cete 397, cul 604, dragunes 622 (‘draguns,’ P. de Thaün), gin 521, grace 104, haleð 184, leun 2, market 378, panter 596, poure 144, pride 247, prophetes 555, rime 572, robb(inge) 657, simple 655, spuse 587, tireð 336, turtres 572, uenim 116 (venin); pre-Conquest Latin is crede 98. The proper name Moyses 553 is the Vulgate form.
[Dialect:] The author of the Bestiary lived in East Anglia, sufficiently near its northern border to account for such rhymes as loð : sloð 328, 329, stedefast : gast 434, 435, vuemest (read -mast) : gast 639, 640. The large Scandinavian element also points to the northern part of East Anglia. How far he was responsible for the Northern or North Midland broken 242, offrigt 625, qual 598, sawen 599, senden 63, 441, soge 386, s as the regular and frequent representative of sć, as in sadue, sal, sarpe &c., the 2, 3 pr. s. in -es, bilimpes 275, forbredes, forgelues, forwurðes 138, higtes 135, 161, and the participles in -ande it is impossible to determine. But he certainly did not write gangande 530, secande 536, and transmission through a Northern or North Midland copy may accordingly be assumed. Our manuscript was written by a scribe of the Southern border of East Anglia. He has left his mark in a number of syncopated presents which spoil the metre and probably in the case of others where the full form is metrically admissible, in luuien 135, hatieð 304, rotieð 311, wulle 634, wullen 314, and probably in were 134 &c., since wore 578 r. w. more is the only form controlled by rhyme. He is also responsible for dede 171, stereð 309, æ + g as ei, dei 576, meiden 23 &c., for vuemest 639, daies 109, 635, out 521, ovt 560, nout 11, 593, 622, nowt 192, 214, occasional alterations without any systematic attempt at revision. We may perhaps venture the guess that the poem was written in Lincolnshire and copied in Essex.
[Metre:] Thetbaldus attempts a variety of metres, ‘temptans diversis si possem scribere metris;’ leonine hexameters for his Lion, Eagle, Siren, Onocentaur and Panther, leonine elegiacs for the Ant, Fox, Stag, Whale and Elephant, sapphics for the Serpent, catalectic dactylic tetrameter for the Spider, adonics for the Turtle. The English adapter emulates his versatility and moreover mixes different kinds of verse in the same article. In alliterative long line are ll. 1-24, 32-35, 106-151, 156-161, 164-166, 170-173, 175-179, 184-197, 199-204, 297-299, 304-315, 318, 356, 357, 360-370, 376-381, 441-448, 451, 458, 459. Of these the great majority are of the first kind described on [p. 463], lines with alliteration only, as 2-8, 10, 11, 15, 18-21, 23, 106-111 &c. Of the second are 13, 16, 114, 134-136, 141, 150, 171, 173, 176, 185, 195, 312-315, 364, 370, 376, 379, 380, 459, of the third, 24, 112, of the fourth 12, 116, 118, 144, ?298, 305, 306, 362, 381, but groups of lines in this class, such as 26-31, 152-155 have attained to their full development as syllabic verse and are printed like the octosyllables and similar metres from which they are indistinguishable. Lines of the fifth class are discussed in the notes. They are numerous, indeed the parts written in alliterative verse are in much worse state than the rest of the text, probably because the scribe’s ignorance of the technique of the native metre gave him greater scope for alteration. The changes he has made are of the kind described on [pp. 464, 465], prominent among them is the rearrangement of words, mostly in a prose order, which often results in the elimination of rhymes. These rhymes are mostly imperfect; inflectional as reiseð : makeð 13, drinkeð : neweð 118 &c., luken : egen 16, leuen : luuien 135, name : queðsipe 298, ouese : felde 362, or partial in correspondence of sound, as sinen : abuten 12, dure : were 134, herte : kirke 136, men : abuten 144, hulen : fules 305, wunder : hunger 306, mere : -mete 459. The most frequent alliterative combination is 2 + 1, as at 4, 15, 18, 19, 106-109, 113, 115, 117, 365 (hitt, hole, biholdeð) &c., it occurs in at least one third of the lines; next in number is 1 + 1, as in 5, 10, 16, 20, 21, 23, 34, 35, 110, 196 (forwurðe, waxe), 458 (atbrosten, brest) &c., 2 + 2 is seen in 111, 123, 160, 363, 367, 1 + 2 in 2, 11, 114, 128, 135, crossed alliteration in 3, 6, 148, 157, 161, 170, 203, 360, 445 (fis, fuliwis, finnes, waxen), 448, distinct alliteration in 147, 165.
The septenarius is the metre of ll. 205-216, 294, 295, 572-579, 585-594. For the structure of this verse, see [p. 327]; the following is a restoration and scansion of the passages in the Bestiary.
205 do wé | forðí | so dóð | ðis dér || ðánne | bé we | gléwe,