House of Romanoff Established.—The accession of the still-reigning Romanoff house took place in 1613 when the States-General elected Michael Romanoff as ruler. Under Alexei (1645-1676), son of Michael, territory was won from Poland, the Cossacks of the Ukraine had to submit, and the power of Russia greatly increased. The reign of Alexei’s son, Feodor III. (1676-1682), witnessed a war with Turkey, but was signalized by many important reforms. His imbecile brother Ivan was heir apparent, but Feodor willed the throne to his half-brother Peter, known in history as the Great; but Peter only obtained sole power in 1689 after overthrowing Sophia, Ivan’s sister.
Under Peter the Great.—Peter the Great opened what may be called the European period of Russian history. (See Peter the Great.) He made his country a European state. He gave it a standing army, a navy on the Baltic, the embryo of a modern administration, a diplomatic service, and a financial organization. He made canals, encouraged industry, literature and art. The heart of Russia might remain at Moscow, but henceforth it was to have also a head that looked out westward from the Neva.
On the other hand, Peter increased taxation; his cruelty was oriental, and serfdom under him became more and more extensive.
He completed the conquest of Siberia, waged successful war with Charles XII. of Sweden, and by the treaty of Nystad in 1721 obtained Esthonia, Livonia, Ingermannland, and part of Finland, thus gaining a large maritime territory on the Baltic Sea. He founded Petrograd in 1703, and made it the capital in place of Moscow.
The Eighteenth Century in Russian history is a century of empresses. Peter the Great was succeeded by his wife, Catherine I. (1725-1727). A grandson of Peter the Great, Peter II., followed Catherine, reigning from 1727 to 1730. The next sovereign was Anna (1730-1740), whose reign was a period of German influence. Ivan VI. (1740-1741) was soon displaced by the anti-German party, and Elizabeth (1741-1762), daughter of Peter the Great, ascended the throne. A part of Finland was obtained by the treaty of Abo, and Russia took part against Prussia in the Seven Years’ war. The first Russian university, that of Moscow, was founded in 1755.
The death of Elizabeth and the accession of Peter III., in 1762, greatly relieved the hard-pressed Frederick the Great, because Peter at once reversed the Russian policy.
Catherine II.—In July, 1762, he was deposed by his wife, Catherine II. (1762-1796), whose reign is of great importance in the progress of Russian power.
Under Catherine II. successful wars were carried on against Turkey, Persia, Sweden and Poland, which largely extended the limits of the empire. The acquisition of the Crimea, which gave Russia a firm footing on the Black Sea, and the first partition of Poland, were two most important steps toward the consolidation of the empire.
Napoleonic Period.—Catherine’s son and successor, Paul I. (1796-1801), at first, through apprehension of the revolution in France, joined the Austrians and British against France, but soon after capriciously withdrew, and was about to commence war with Great Britain when his assassination took place. A palace conspiracy put an end to his reign and life.
His eldest son, Alexander I. (1801-1825), was at the outset desirous of peace, but was soon drawn into the vortex of the great struggle with France, in which he played a prominent part. (See Alexander I. and Napoleon.) The Holy Alliance and the example of conservative policy set by Austria exercised a pernicious influence on the later part of his reign; and the higher classes, who had looked for the introduction of at least a portion of the liberal institutions they had seen and admired in Western Europe, became so dissatisfied that, when his youngest brother, Nicholas I. (1825-1855), from whom they had nothing to hope, succeeded, they broke out into open rebellion, which was speedily crushed.