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GOVERNMENTS OF THE UNITED STATES, BRITISH EMPIRE, GERMANY, AND FRANCE ARRANGED IN PARALLEL COLUMNS

UNITED STATES

BRITISH EMPIRE

GERMANY

FRANCE

Form of Government: Republic. The general plan of the government of the United States is determined by theConstitution. The central government is limited to the exercise of the powers specifically enumerated in the Constitution, or impliedtherein, while the remaining governmental powers, not denied to the states by the Constitution, are reserved to the states. The generalgovernment is in three fairly well defined parts, the legislative, executive, and judicial.

Form of Government.—Monarchy in form, but republic in practice. The monarchy is constitutional andlimited.
The British Empire consists of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the Empire ofIndia, and the British Dominions beyond the Seas, including the self-governing Dominions, and the Crown Colonies, Protectorates, and otherDependencies, the whole forming one Empire.

Form of Government.—The Empire, according to the Constitution of April 16, 1871, is a ConfederateLeague, bearing the name German Empire, under the hereditary presidentship of the King of Prussia, who holds the title of German Emperor,and whose eldest son is styled His Imperial and Royal Highness.

Form of Government.—France, since the overthrow of Napoleon III., in 1870, has been a republicgoverned by a President and two Chambers under the Constitution.

I. Constitution.—The present Constitution was adopted September 17, 1787.
Ratification of the Constitution.—The Constitution was ratified by the thirteen original States in thefollowing order:
Delaware, Dec. 7, 1787, unanimously.
Pennsylvania, Dec.12, 1787, vote 46 to 23.
New Jersey, Dec. 18, 1787, unanimously.
Georgia,Jan 2, 1788, unanimously.
Connecticut, Jan 9, 1788, vote 128 to 40.
Massachusetts, Feb. 6, 1788, vote 187 to 168.
Maryland, April 28, 1788, vote 63 to12.
South Carolina, May 23, 1788, vote 149 to 73.
New Hampshire, June 21,1788, vote 57 to 46.
Virginia, June 25, 1788, vote 89 to 79.
New York,July 26, 1788, vote 30 to 28.
North Carolina, Nov. 21, 1789, vote 193 to 75.
Rhode Island, May 29, 1790, vote 34 to 32.

I. Constitution.—The British Constitution is mainly unwritten and customary, but itsdevelopment is marked by certain outstanding and fundamental laws, of which the principal are: Magna Charta, 1215; the Habeas Corpus Act,1679; the Act of Settlement, 1701; the Act of Union with Scotland, 1707; the Act of Union with Ireland, 1800; and the Parliament Act,1911. The first secured annual parliaments and the equal administration of justice; the second established the liberty of the person; thethird provided for the Protestant succession to the throne; the fourth and fifth created the United Kingdom; and the last enabled theCommons to pass certain Acts without the adherence of the other Chamber.

I. Constitution.
Adoption.—Present Constitution adopted April16, 1871. The Constitution of the German Empire is substantially that of the North German Confederation, which came into force in 1867,and which was adopted by the Empire in 1871, after the southern states of Germany had combined with the northern.

I. Constitution.
Adoption.—Present Constitution adopted February25, 1875. It has undergone but slight modifications. The present French Constitution remains a mixture of monarchical and republicaninstitutions, and it has fully maintained its strong and old-established centralization. The Constitution of 1875 is based on universalsuffrage. It was revised in 1875, 1884, 1885 and 1889.

Amendments.—Congress may, by two-thirds vote of both Houses, proposeamendments to the Constitution, or upon application of the Legislatures of two-thirds of the several States, shall call a convention forproposing amendments, which, in either case, must be ratified by the Legislatures of three-fourths of the several States, or byconventions in three-fourths thereof.

Amendments.—Amendments to the Constitution can be proposed by either of thelegislative bodies, are passed by ordinary legislative process, requiring for their passage a majority simply of the votes of theReichstag, but they fail if fourteen votes are cast against them in the Bundesrath.

Amendments.—Whenever the two Houses agree that revision is necessary, andalso agree upon particular points that should be revised, the National Assembly, composed of the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies,sitting as one body, convenes at Versailles, and acts upon the amendments proposed, the vote of an absolute majority being decisive. TheNational Assembly also elects the President of the republic.

II. The President.
How Elected.—The several steps in theelection of the President are:
State Electors are chosen at a General Election held on the Tuesdayfollowing the first Monday of November of every fourth year; the number of Electors of each State being equal to the number ofSenators and Representatives to which the State is entitled in Congress.
The Electors meet in theirrespective States on the second Monday in January following their election, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President;and at the same time make certificates of their vote and transmit the same to the President of the Senate.
The Senate and House of Representatives meet together on the second Wednesday of February next ensuing, andcount the votes of the State Electors, when, if there is an election, the President of the Senate declares who is elected President andVice-President.
In case there is no choice by the State Electors, the President is elected by the House ofRepresentatives from the three candidates who received the most electoral votes for President; in which election the vote is taken byStates, each State having but one vote, and a majority of all the States being necessary to a choice.
Term of Office.—Four years.
Eligibility.—A natural borncitizen; resident of the United States fourteen years; minimum age thirty-five years.

II. The Sovereign.
How Designated.—The King’s legal titlerests upon the Act of Settlement, in 1701, under William III., by which the succession to the Crown of Great Britain and Ireland wassettled on the Princess Sophia of Hanover and the “heirs of her body, being Protestants.” The throne is hereditary in theEnglish house of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha with mixed succession, the sons of the Sovereign and their descendants having precedence of daughters,but daughters and their descendants preference over lateral lines. The Sovereign is designated King (or Queen) of Great Britain andIreland, and Emperor (or Empress) of India.
Term of Office.—Holds office for life, byhereditary title, and cannot be removed.

II. Chief magistrate, styled the Deutscher Kaiser.
HowDesignated.—The election of Wilhelm I., King of Prussia, as German Emperor (1871) was by vote of the Reichstag of the NorthGerman Confederation, on the initiative of all the reigning Princes of Germany. The Imperial dignity is hereditary in the House ofHohenzollern, and follows the law of primogeniture in the male line. He must be occupant of the throne of Prussia under the provisions ofPrussian law.
Term of Office.—Holds office for life,and cannot be removed.

II. Chief Magistrate, or President of the Republic.
Term ofOffice.—Elected for seven years by the National Assembly, and is re-eligible.
The NationalAssembly meets for the purposes of this election, as for the revision of the Constitution, at Versailles. The revision of the Constitutionand the election of President are its only functions.
Qualifications.—Must be a citizen, nota member of any family which has occupied the throne of France.

Salary.—Fixed by law at $75,000 per year.

Salary or Civil List.—The Civil List Act, 1910, gave the King $2,350,000. Provision for other membersof the Royal Family, $730,000. The Prince of Wales, as the income of the Duchy of Cornwall, $435,000. The King in addition to his CivilList receives the revenues of the Duchy of Lancaster amounting to $320,000.

Salary or Income.—Royal Civil List of Emperor, $3,700,000.

Salary.—$140,000.
Responsibilities.—May be impeached bythe Chamber of Deputies, and tried by the Senate, in case of high treason.

Powers and Duties of the President.—Commander-in-Chief of the Army and Navy. Communicates withCongress by message. Approves or disapproves Acts of Congress. Makes treaties with advice and consent of the Senate. Appoints PublicOfficers with the advice and consent of the Senate. Commissions Public Officers of the United States. Grants reprieves and pardons foroffenses against the United States.
The Vice-President.—Elected by State Electors the same asthe President; or by the Senate, in case there is no choice by the State Electors. Term of office same as for the President. Eligibilitysame as required of the President. Salary fixed by law at twelve thousand dollars per year.
ThePresidential Succession.—In case of the removal, death, resignation, or inability of the President, the Vice-President takes thePresident’s place.
In case of the removal, death, resignation, or inability of both President andVice-President the heads of the Executive Departments succeed to the Presidency in the order in which the Executive Departments are namedbelow; but such officer must be constitutionally eligible to the Presidency, must have been appointed to the cabinet by the advice andwith the consent of the Senate, and be not under impeachment. The Secretary of Agriculture and the Secretary of Commerce and Labor areineligible to the presidency by reason of the fact that these two cabinet offices were created subsequent to the passage of the act of theforty-ninth Congress in which provision was made for the presidential succession.

Powers and Duties.—Has command of army and navy.
Parliament cannot beassembled, prorogued, or dissolved except by the express command of the Sovereign.
At the commencement ofa new Parliament must deliver, either in person or by a commission authorized for that purpose, a speech declaring the cause of thesummons.
Bills passed by Parliament must receive the assent of the Sovereign in order to becomelaw.
Has legally a veto power; but, because the influence of the Executive over legislation has passedinto the hands of the Ministers, the veto of the Crown has been disused since 1707.
Has power to appointall officers in the army and navy, judges, ambassadors, colonial governors, bishops and archbishops of the Established Church, and grantsall degrees of nobility.
May make treaties of any kind.
May grant pardonto any particular offender.
The Privy Council.—The King in Council is the supreme executiveauthority in the realm. The Privy Council meets as a whole at the beginning of a new reign and on other occasions of state and ceremony,possesses certain administrative powers, and is the Supreme Court of the Empire. Its personnel includes the royal princes and thearchbishops, Members of the Cabinet and of the royal household, the Speaker of the House of Commons, the ambassadors, the principalcolonial governors, colonial statesmen, certain judges, and members of both political parties who have never been in office.
The important functions of the Council are the bringing into operation by means of orders in council of theprovisions of many statutes which Parliament leaves to the executive to enforce, temporarily or permanently, at such time or times as itmay deem necessary and desirable. These orders have all the force and validity of law.

Powers and Duties.—Commander-in-Chief of the imperial army.
Summons,opens, adjourns, and closes the two Houses. He may dissolve the Reichstag upon advice of the Bundesrath.
All measures passed by the Bundesrath are presented to the Reichstag in the name of the Emperor.
Bills passed by the two Houses must be promulgated by the Emperor.
In cases where heregards them as involving a change in the Constitution, he need not promulgate them if fourteen votes have been cast against them in theBundesrath.
All official acts of the Emperor require the counter-signature of the Chancellor.
Appoints and may, at his pleasure, remove the Imperial Chancellor. Appoints and may, with the counter-signature ofthe Chancellor, remove all minor officers in the imperial service.
May declare war if defensive, and maketreaties and peace; but for declaring offensive war the consent of the Bundesrath must be obtained.
Haspower to grant pardons.

Powers and Duties.—Has command of the army and navy.
May convene theChambers on extraordinary occasions.
May adjourn the Chambers at any time for a period not exceeding onemonth. Can close a regular session of the Chambers at his discretion after it has continued five months; an extra session when he pleases.Can with the consent of the Senate dissolve the Chamber of Deputies even before the expiration of five months. This puts an end to thesession of the Senate also, but not to its life. The President must order a new election in case of dissolution.
At the commencement of a new session of the Chambers the President of the republic sends a message, which is read byone of the Ministers.
Bills passed by the Chambers must be signed by the President, and countersigned byone of his Ministers.
Has no veto power, but is authorized to demand a reconsideration of any measure bythe Chambers.
Has power to appoint and remove all officers of the public service, subject to thecounter-signature of the Minister whose department is affected in each case.
May make treaties of peace,alliance and commerce, but cannot declare war without the advice of the Chambers.
Has power to grantpardons.
Succession.—In case of his death, resignation, or removal, the Council of Ministersact until the National Assembly can meet and elect a new President.

The Executive Departments

Acts of Congress become laws:— When signed (approved) by the President; or, by his failure to makeobjection in writing (veto) within ten days after any act is submitted to him, unless Congress by adjournment within that time preventsits return; but Congress has power to pass a law over the President’s veto by a vote of two-thirds of each House.

The Cabinet

The Ministry

Imperial Chancellor.—He has no counterpart in any other constitutional government. He isthe Emperor’s responsible proxy, controlling the politics of the Empire.
Appointment and Tenureof Office.—Appointed by the Emperor. Must be one of Prussia’s seventeen representatives in the Bundesrath. His term isdependent upon the pleasure of the Emperor.
Responsibility.—Does not consist in a liabilityto be forced to resign, but consists simply in amenability to the laws.
Powers andDuties.—Must give an account of the administration to the Reichstag, and submits the annual budget. He is the center and sourceof all the administrative departments, dominating the entire imperial service. He superintends the administration of the laws of theEmpire by the States. As chairman of the Bundesrath he is simply a Prussian representing the King of Prussia, as the Emperor has no placein the Bundesrath.
The army and navy, however, are not directly controlled by him, but by the GeneralField-Marshal.
The following are the imperial authorities or Secretaries of State; they do not form aMinistry or Cabinet, but act independently of each other, under the general supervision of the Chancellor:
Chancellor of the Empire.
Secretary for Foreign Affairs.
Imperial Home Office and Representative of the Chancellor.
ImperialAdmiralty.
Imperial Secretary of Justice.
ImperialTreasury.
Imperial Post-Office.
Secretary for theColonies.
And, in addition, the following presidents of imperial bureaus:
Railways.
Imperial Exchequer.
ImperialBank.
Imperial Debt Commission.
Administration of ImperialRailways.
Imperial Court Martial.
Acting under the direction ofthe Chancellor of the Empire, the Bundesrath represents also a supreme administrative and consultative board, and as such has twelvestanding committees—namely, for army and fortifications; for naval matters; tariff, excise and taxes; trade and commerce; railways,posts and telegraphs; civil and criminal law; financial accounts; foreign affairs; for Alsace-Lorraine; for the Constitution; for thestanding orders; and for railway tariffs.

Powers and Duties.—As a Cabinet, the Ministers represent the administration in theChambers; as a Council, they exercise a general oversight of the administration of the laws, with a view of giving unity of direction tothe affairs of the State. The President may be present at all Council meetings.
Cabinet and Council ofMinisters.—Both the Cabinet and the Council consist of the same persons. The Cabinet is a political body; the Council, anadministrative body.
Appointment.—Chosen by the President, generally from among the membersof the Chambers.
Members of the Cabinet.—Membership may vary somewhat:
Premier and Foreign Minister.
Ministers of State.
Minister of Justice and Vice-President of the Council.
Minister ofWar.
Minister of Marine.
Minister of theInterior.
Minister of Finance.
Minister ofAgriculture.
Minister of Public Works.
Minister ofCommerce.
Minister of Colonies.
Minister of Instruction andMinister of Inventions affecting National Defense.
Council of State.—Gives advice on allprojects of law which the Chambers or the Government wish to submit to it, and on administrative regulations and by-laws. Its decision isfinal in all disputes arising in matters of administration.
Is presided over by the Minister of Justice,and is composed of Councillors, Masters of Requests, and Auditors, all appointed by the President of the republic.
Relations to the Chambers.—Are the leaders of the Chambers.
Whether membersof the Chambers or not, they have as Ministers the right to attend all sessions of the Chambers and take a specially privileged part inthe debate.

Composed of the heads of the executive departments.
Appointed by thePresident with the advice and consent of the Senate.
Salary.—Secretary of State, $12,000; allother cabinet members, twelve thousand dollars annually.

The Cabinet, or Inner Council, under the presidency of the Prime Minister, consists of Ministers, drawn fromthe ranks of the party in power and appointed by the Sovereign on the advice of the Prime Minister.

Heads of Departments

Members (As reconstituted in June, 1915) and their salaries.
Prime Minister and First Lord of the Treasury	$25,000
Lord High Chancellor (and $20,000 as speaker of the House of Lords)	50,000
Minister without Portfolio	unpaid
Lord President of the Council	10,000
Lord Privy Seal	unpaid
First Lord of the Admiralty	22,500
Secretaries of State:
Home Affairs	25,000
Foreign Affairs	25,000
Colonies	25,000
War	25,000
India	25,000
Chancellor of the Exchequer	25,000
Minister of Munitions	25,000
Secretary for Scotland	10,000
Chief Secretary to the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland	21,125
Presidents of Committees of the Council:
Board of Trade	25,000
Local Government Board	25,000
Board of Education	10,000
First Commissioner of Works	10,000
Attorney-General	35,000
Board of Agriculture	10,000

Department of State.—Has charge of foreign affairs.
Treasury Department.—Has charge of fiscal affairs.
Department ofWar.—Has charge of the Army and military affairs.
Department of Justice.—Has chargeof the legal affairs of the Government.
Post-office Department.—Has charge of postalaffairs.
Navy Department.—Has charge of the Navy and naval affairs.
Department of the Interior.—Has charge of domestic affairs, including public lands, pensions, patents,Bureau of Education, etc.
Department of Agriculture.—Has charge of agricultural affairs,including Weather Bureau, etc.
Department of Commerce and Labor.—Has charge of domestic andforeign affairs, relating to commerce, transportation, Department of Labor, etc.

Relations to Parliament.—The Chief of the Cabinet and of the Ministry iscalled the Prime Minister or Premier. He is the leader of the House of Parliament of which he is a member. He dispenses the greaterportion of the patronage of the Crown. Other members of the Cabinet are the leaders of Parliament, shaping and directing the business ofthe Houses.

Tenure of Office.—Dependent upon the will or favor of the President.

Tenure of Office.—Dependent upon the favor of the House of Commons; for if not sustained, they mustall resign. When a Ministry resigns it is the function of the sovereign to call upon some statesman to form another administration. Thereis no restriction upon the Royal choice, but the statesman usually selected is the leader of the opposing party in one of the twoHouses.

Tenure of Office.—Dependent upon the favor of the Chambers; for, if not sustained, theymust all resign.

Powers and Duties.—As stated above, but under the direction of the President.

Powers and Duties.—All real authority is with the Cabinet. The executive government is nominally inthe Crown, but practically in the Cabinet. The Ministers are at the heads of the administrative departments. The Sovereign does not sitwith the Cabinet.
Other Ministers.—The Ministry includes a number of minor posts whoseoccupants have no seat in the Cabinet.

III. Congress.—Consisting of both the Senate and the House ofRepresentatives as co-ordinate bodies.
Duration.—The term of each Congress is for two years,commencing March 4th of the odd years.
Regular Sessions.—Annual, beginning the first Mondayin December.
Special Sessions.—At the call of the President.
Membership.—Each House is the judge of the elections and qualifications of its own members.
Congress has General Powers of Legislation.—To provide for the raising and disbursement of revenue. Toborrow money; to coin money and to regulate its value; and to fix the standard of weights and measures. To regulate foreign and interstatecommerce. To declare war, and to maintain an army and navy. To establish post-offices and post roads. To enact patent and copyright laws.To enact uniform naturalization and bankruptcy laws. To provide for the punishment of crimes against the United States. To establishcourts inferior to the Supreme Court. To provide for organizing and calling out the militia. To admit new States into the Union. Toprovide for the governments of the Territories. To exercise exclusive jurisdiction over the District of Columbia, public lands, publicbuildings, forts, and navy yards. To enact all laws necessary and proper for carrying into execution all the powers vested by theConstitution in the government of the United States.

III. Parliament.—Parliament consists of two Houses, the House of Lordsand the House of Commons. The Sovereign alone has the power of summoning or proroguing or dissolving Parliament, and gives the RoyalAssent to measures which have passed both Houses. Unless it be dissolved by the Crown, Parliament exists five years from the date on whichit was first to meet. The demise of the Crown does not dissolve Parliament, but, on the contrary, renders an immediate assembling of thetwo Houses necessary; and if there be no Parliament in existence, the old Parliament must reassemble, and may sit again for six months, ifit be not within that time dissolved by the new Sovereign.
All British dominions are subject (except asregards taxation) to the legislation of the British Parliament; but no Act of Parliament affects a colony unless that colony is speciallymentioned. If the legislature of a colony enacts a law which is repugnant to an imperial law affecting the colony, it is to the extent towhich it is repugnant absolutely void.

III. The Government.
The legislativefunctions of the Empire are vested jointly in the Bundesrath or Federal Council which represents the several states, and by the Reichstagor Diet of the Realm, which represents the German nation. The Emperor has no veto on laws passed by these bodies. All laws for the Empiremust receive the votes of an absolute majority.
The consent of the Federal Council and Reichstag isnecessary in regard to certain specified treaties. The Emperor has the right to summon, open, adjourn, and close the Reichstag. TheFederal Council and Reichstag must be summoned to meet every year; the Reichstag cannot be summoned without the adherence of the FederalCouncil.

III. The Chambers.—Consist of the Senate and House of Deputies.

THE SENATE.—Composed of two Senators from each State (ninety-six in1917), chosen by popular vote for six years, one-third retiring every two years.

THE HOUSE OF LORDS.—The House at present consists of three Princes ofthe Blood, two Archbishops, twenty-one Dukes, twenty-six Marquesses, one hundred and twenty-one Earls, forty-six Viscounts, twenty-fourBishops, three hundred and fifty-six Barons, sixteen Scottish Representative Peers elected for each Parliament, and twenty-seven IrishRepresentative Peers elected for life. The members hold their seats by virtue of hereditary title; by creation of the Sovereign; by virtueof office (English bishops); by election for life (Irish peers); by election for duration of Parliament (Scottish peers).

BUNDESRATH, or Federal Council, is composed of sixty-one votes representingthe individual states. They are appointed by the governments (i. e. the Executives) of the States for each session.
The apportionments of representation in the Bundesrath among the States of the Empire is as follows: Prussiaseventeen votes, Bavaria six, Saxony and Würtemberg four each, Baden, Hesse and Alsace-Lorraine each three, Mecklenburg-Schwerin andBrunswick each two, the other States (seventeen) one apiece.

THE SENATE is composed of three hundred members chosen by the Departmentsand Colonies for nine years, one-third of the members retiring every three years.
Until 1884 the Senatecontained seventy-five life members, the life list having been originally made up by election by the National Assembly of 1875, andvacancies being filled by the Senate itself. In 1884 this arrangement was abolished, and since that year vacancies in the life roll havebeen filled by ordinary nine-year Senators.

Qualifications.—Must be at least thirty years of age, must have been a citizen of the United Statesfor nine years, and must be an inhabitant of the State which he represents.

Qualifications.—Must be at least twenty-one years of age.

Qualifications.—Must be a Frenchman, and at least forty years of age.

Remuneration.—Members receive seven thousand five hundred dollars, with mileage.

Remuneration.—Receive no pay.

Remuneration.—15,000 francs ($3,000).

Organization.—The Vice-President of the United States is the President of the Senate. Is elected bythe Electoral College. Votes only in case of a tie.
Quorum.—A majority of members.

Organization—Quorum.—Three, including the Lord Chancellor; thirty for final vote on abill. The Lord Chancellor, who is a member of the Cabinet, presides. He is appointed by mere delivery of the Great Seal to him by theSovereign and is principal legal adviser of the Crown. His patronage is very extensive. He nominates the puisne judges and county courtjudges; the holder of the office may not be a Roman Catholic.

Organization—Quorum.—The Imperial Chancellor or his substitute (at regular meeting). TheImperial Chancellor presides. Votes with the other Prussian representatives, whose votes must be undivided; and, in case of a tie,Prussia’s vote decides.

Organization—Quorum.—A majority of members. Elects its own President andVice-Presidents.

Committees.—Members are divided into standing committees, chosen by the Senate itself, which act inthe preliminary examination, and shaping of measures to be voted on.

Committees.—Special committees are appointed to make investigations, and report on matters which couldnot be undertaken by the whole House.

Committees.—There are three standing committees and eight commissions, two of which are appointed bythe Emperor, five wholly by the Bundesrath, and one in part by the Bundesrath, being made up principally of membersex-officio.
Each commission consists of representatives of at least five States of the Empire.

Committees.—Each month the members are divided by lots into “Bureaux.” These select allthe special committees to which bills are referred, except when the House chooses itself to elect a committee.

Powers and Duties.—In concurrence with the House of Representatives, it makes the laws. It also haspower to confirm or reject all appointments to office by the President of the United States, and all treaties. The members constitute ahigh court for the trial of impeachments. Elects Vice-President of the United States if regular election fails.

Powers and Duties.—In concurrence with the House of Commons, makes the laws, having a revising powerover all bills proposed by the House of Commons, except those relating to public revenue and expenditure, which it must pass or rejectwithout amendment.
It is the highest appellate court of the United Kingdom. It may in certain cases trymembers of its own body; it tries any person who may be impeached by the House of Commons, and it also decides claims to the peerage.

Powers and Duties.—May originate bills to be sent to the Reichstag. Its consent is indispensable tothe validity of all legislation. Members may speak on the floor of the Reichstag. Acting under the direction of the Imperial Chancellor,it is the supreme administrative board. It is in some cases the highest court of the Empire. Is the court of appeal between two or moreStates of the Empire.

Powers and Duties.—In concurrence with the Chamber of Deputies, makes the laws, and has in law-makingthe same prerogatives as the Chamber, except that bills relating to revenue originate with the Chamber. It is a court of justice fortrying the President of the republic and the Ministers. It may originate, and, in concurrence with the Senate, pass resolutions and bills;but bills relating to finance must be originated by the Chamber of Deputies. Has power to bring accusations against the President of therepublic and the Ministers.

HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES.—Composed (in 1917) of four hundred and thirty-five members elected everysecond year for two years by the people of the States in the proportion of one Representative for every 211,877 inhabitants. Each State,however, is entitled to at least one member, whatever its population.

HOUSE OF COMMONS.—This body consists of six hundred and seventy elected members representing county,borough, and university constituencies. Roughly speaking, about one-sixth of the population are electors.

REICHSTAG, or Imperial Diet, is composed (in 1917) of three hundred and ninety-seven members, and electedfor five years by universal suffrage.

THE CHAMBER OF DEPUTIES is composed (in 1917) of five hundred and eighty-four Deputies, distributed amongthe Departments and certain colonies in the proportion of one Deputy to seventy thousand inhabitants. The Deputies are chosen for a termof four years by universal suffrage, the Arrondissements serving as electoral districts.

Qualifications.—Must be at least twenty-five years of age, must have been seven years a citizen of theUnited States, and must be an inhabitant of the State from which he is chosen.

Qualifications.—Must be at least twenty-one years of age. Clergymen are disqualified from sitting asmembers, also English and Scottish peers, government contractors, and sheriffs and returning officers for the localities for which theyact.

Qualifications.—Must be at least twenty-five years of age, and have lived at least one year in one ofthe German States.

Qualifications.—Must be a citizen of France, and at least twenty-five years of age.

Organization—Quorum.—A majority of members. Elects its own presiding officer, who iscalled the Speaker, salary twelve thousand dollars per year.

Organization—Quorum.—Forty members, including the Speaker. Elects its own presidingofficer, who is called the Speaker, who has a residence in the Palace of Westminster, and receives a salary of $25,000 per annum.

Organization—Quorum.—A majority of members. Elects its own presiding officer, who iscalled the President.

Organization—Quorum.—A majority of members. Chooses its own President, Vice-President andother officers.

Remuneration.—Members receive seven thousand five hundred dollars and mileage.

Remuneration.—$2,000 per year (since 1911).

Remuneration.—3,000 marks ($750) per session, with deduction of twenty marks ($5.00) for eachday’s absence; they have free passes over German railways during session.

Remuneration.—15,000 francs ($3,000).

Powers of the House of Representatives.—Elects its Speaker (presiding officer) and its other officers.Elects President of the United States if the regular election fails. Prosecutes impeachments before the Senate. Originates all bills forraising revenue.

Powers and Duties.—May originate and, in concurrence with the House of Lords, pass resolutions andbills; but bills relating to the imposition of taxes and the granting of supplies for the service of the State must be originated in theHouse of Commons.

Powers and Duties.—Has power to originate and, with the advice and consent of the Bundesrath, to enactthe laws. It also exerts a controlling influence through its power to give or withhold its sanction to certain ordinances to whosevalidity the Constitution makes its concurrence necessary, through its right to inquire into the conduct of affairs; and in many otherways not susceptible of enumeration.

Powers and Duties.—May originate, and, in concurrence with the Senate, pass resolutions and bills; butbills relating to finance must be originated by the Chamber of Deputies. Has power to bring accusations against the President of therepublic and Ministers.

Committees.—Almost all the acts of the House are under the control of Standing Committees, appointedby the Speaker.

Committees.—The business of the House is almost entirely under the direction of the Ministry; however,commissions and select committees are from time to time appointed to make investigations and report on matters which could not beundertaken by the House.

Committees.—There are no standing committees, but select committees are occasionally appointed byelection from the seven “Sections” into which the members are divided by lot for committee work.

Committees.—Each month the members are divided by lot into eleven “Bureaux,” which selectall the special committees to which bills are referred, except when the Chamber chooses to appoint a committee directly.

IV. The Judicial Department.

IV. Judicial Departments, or Courts of Law.

IV. Judicial Department.

Judges of the United States Courts

Privy Council.—The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council (which hears appeals fromColonial and Indian Courts, and also from Ecclesiastical Courts) consists of the Lord Chancellor, Lord President, ex-Lords President, theLords of Appeal in Ordinary, and such other members of the Privy Council as shall from time to time hold or have held “high judicialoffice.” No dissenting judgments are allowed, but the Judicial Committee can grant special leave to appeal.
The English courts of law having jurisdiction in actions between parties are:

The laws of the Empire take precedence of the Federated States within the scope of the Constitution ofthe Empire; they are compulsory on all Governments of the Empire.
A uniform system of law courts existsthroughout the Empire, though, with the exception of the Reichsgericht, all courts are directly subject to the Government of the specialState in which they exercise jurisdiction, and not to the Imperial Government. The appointment of the judges is also a State and not anImperial function. The Empire enjoys uniform codes of commercial and criminal law.

The judicial system is under direct control of the government. All Judges are nominated by thePresident of the republic. They can be removed only by a decision of the Court of Cassation constituted as the ConseilSupérieur of the magistracy.

Appointed by the President with the advice and consent of theSenate.
Tenure of Office.—During life or good behavior; but may retire on full salary afterreaching the age of seventy years, and after ten years’ service on the bench.

The Supreme Court of the United States

House of Lords

Imperial Supreme Court.

The Court of Cassation.

Members.—A Chief Justice and Eight Associate Justices.
Salaries.—Chief Justice, fifteen thousand dollars; Associate Justices, each fourteen thousand five hundreddollars.
Terms of Court.—One each year, beginning on the second Monday inOctober.
Original Jurisdiction.—In all cases affecting Ambassadors, Ministers, and Consuls.In all cases in which a State is a party.
Appellate Jurisdiction.—In cases of law and equitywhere the Inferior Courts have original jurisdiction, with such exceptions and regulations as Congress has made.
The Chief Justice.—Presides over the Senate when it sits as a Court of Impeachment for the trial of thePresident.

Lord High Chancellor and such peers of Parliament as are holding or have held high judicial office. This isthe ultimate Court of Appeal from all the courts in the United Kingdom.

Reichsgericht (Imperial Supreme Court), to which there is a right of appeal from all inferior courts, sitsat Leipzig, and consists of one hundred judges, appointed by the Kaiser on the recommendation of the Bundesrath.

The Court of Cassation, which sits at Paris, is the highest court for all criminal cases tried by jury,sofar as regards matters of law.
Courts of Appeal.—The highest courts are the twenty-sixCourtsof Appeal, composed each of one president and a variable number of members, for all criminal cases which have been tried without ajury.

Inferior Courts

There are two Courts of Appeal below these divisions:
Lords ofAppeal in Ordinary.— Consisting of six Justices.
Court of Appeal.—Ex-OfficioJudges, the Lord High Chancellor, the Lord Chief Justice of England, the Master of the Rolls, and the President of the Probate, Divorceand Admiralty Division.
The High Court comprises the King’s Bench, Chancery, and Probate,Divorce and Admiralty Divisions.
High Court of Justice, Chancery Division.—(Administration oftrusts, company cases, mortgages, patents, etc.). Consists of the Lord High Chancellor and six other Justices.
High Court of Justice, King’s Bench Division.—(Contracts, torts, bankruptcy, etc.). Consists of theLord Chief Justice of England and fifteen other Justices.
High Court of Justice, Probate, Divorce andAdmiralty Division.—(Wills, matrimonial cases, and maritime cases). Consists of two Justices.
Court of Criminal Appeal.—All the Judges of King’s Bench Division.
Court of Arches.—An ecclesiastical court unites the powers of the jus canonicum with new powersconceded by the Church Discipline Act, 1841, and the similar statute of 1874, exercising authority in both provinces. The JudicialCommittee of Privy Council is the Court of Final Appeal in ecclesiastical causes.
BankruptcyCourt.—Consisting of one Justice.

The Oberlandesgerichte (Supreme Court), which are the first courts of the second instance, haveoriginal jurisdiction in serious offenses, and are presided over by seven judges.
The Landgericht(County Courts) have a fairly extensive jurisdiction in civil and criminal cases and in divorce proceedings. There are five judges in thecriminal chamber of a Landgericht, four votes being required to make a conviction valid. Three judges from such a court preside atintervals over jury courts (Schwurgerichte), and juries do not, therefore, form a permanent part of the system.
Not the least important work of the Landgerichte is to revise the decisions of the Amtsgerichte, which are the lowestcourts of the first instance, being controlled by single judges, who are competent to hear only petty civil and criminalcases.
The Amtsgerichte (Police or District Courts) are the lowest courts, each with a single judgecompetent to try petty civil and criminal cases, divorce cases, etc.

Court of Assizes.—In all cases of a délit or a crime the preliminary inquiryis made in secrecy by an examining magistrate (juge d’instruction), who may either dismiss the case or send it for trialbefore a court where a public prosecutor (procureur) endeavors to prove the charge. The Court of Assizes is assisted by twelve jurors, whodecide by simple majority on the fact with respect to offenses amounting to crimes.
Justices of thePeace (juges de paix) are the courts of lowest jurisdiction in France. They try small civil cases and act also as judges ofPolice Courts, where all petty offenses (contraventions) are disposed of. The Correctional Courts pronounce upon all graver offenses(délits), including cases involving imprisonment up to five years. They have no jury, and consist of three judges belongingto the civil tribunals of first instance.
For commercial cases there are, in two hundred and twenty-sixtowns, Tribunals of Commerce and Councils of Experts (prud’hommes). In the towns are police courts.

Jurisdiction.—In cases between citizens of different States. In cases in which the United States is aparty. In cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction. In trials for crimes against the United States; but the trial of crimes must be byjury, and must be held in the State where the crime was committed.
Appeals to the Supreme Court maybe had in all cases of law and equity, with such exceptions and regulations as Congress has made.

Kinds of Inferior Courts

United States Circuit Courts of Appeals.—Organized in 1891 to relieve theUnited States Supreme Court in Appellate Cases. Number: One in each Judicial Circuit. Members: Three judges selected from the DistrictCourts.
Number.—One in each Judicial Circuit.
Members.—Three judges selected from the District Courts.
United StatesCircuit Courts.—
Number of Circuits.—Nine.
Number of Judges.—Each Circuit has two, three, or four Circuit Judges, and a Justice of the Supreme Courtis assigned to each Circuit. The District Judge also may sit in a Circuit Court.
Salary of CircuitJudges.—Fixed by law at seven thousand dollars per year.
United States DistrictCourts.—
Number of Districts.—One or more in each State. At present there areseventy-threeJudicial Districts.
Salary of District Judge.—Fixed by law at seven thousand dollars peryear.
United States Court of Claims.—
Jurisdiction.—Claims against the United States, including all claims which may be referred to it byCongress.
Members.—One Chief Justice and four Associate Justices.
Salaries.—Chief Justice, six thousand five hundred dollars; Associate Justices, each six thousanddollars.
In addition to the above named courts, Congress has established courts of local jurisdiction inthe District of Columbia and in the Territories.