Chief Events: Death of Louis by the plague; (2) Acre, last Christian stronghold in Syria, falls (1291).
Results: The results of the crusades were development of commerce, introduction of new customs, products and manufactures, increase in freedom of lower classes, especially townsmen, and the power of the crown.
WAR OF THE EMPIRE—1158-1183.
(1) Empire vs. (2) Italian Communes.
Cause: Frederick Barbarossa’s attempt to restore imperial rights over the cities of northern Italy.
Leaders: (1) Frederick I. Barbarossa; (2) Pope Alexander III.
Chief Actions: (1) Milan (1162); (2) Legnano (1176).
Results: By treaty of Constance (1183) the cities of Lombardy are recognized as practically self-governing republics, the barest overlordship remaining to the emperor.
WARS OF THE BARONS IN ENGLAND—1215-1265.
(1) Barons vs. (2) Kings John and Henry III.