(1) Spain vs. (2) Revolted provinces in the Netherlands.
Causes: Political and religious tyranny of Spain. Duke of Alva enforces the Inquisition.
Leaders: (1) Duke of Alva, Alexander of Parma; (2) William of Orange, Jan van Oldenbarneveldt, Maurice of Nassau.
Chief Actions: (1) Mechlin, Haarlem; (2) Brill, Siege of Leyden, “Spanish Fury” at Antwerp, Pacification of Ghent (1576), Union of Utrecht (1579), Declaration of Independence (1581).
Results: By the Peace of Westphalia (1648) the independence of the seven northern provinces, the United Netherlands, is recognized. The ten southern provinces continue under Spanish rule until 1713.
THIRTY YEARS’ WAR—1618-1648.
(1) German Protestants and their Allies, England, Holland, Sweden and France vs. (2) Imperial German Catholics and their Allies, Spain, Italy.
Causes: Disputes over interpretation of peace of Augsburg (religious and political disputes leading to the revolt of Bohemia). The war passes through four phases: (1) Bohemian-Palatinate, (2) Danish, (3) Swedish, (4) Swedish-French.
Leaders: (1) Frederick, Elector Palatine, Mansfield, Gustavus Adolphus (Sweden), Turenne and Conde (France); (2) Emperor Ferdinand II., Maximilian of Bavaria, Tilly, Wallenstein.
Chief Actions: (1) Stralsund, Edict of Restitution, Breitenfeld, Lützen; (2) White Hill, Magdeburg, Nōrdlingen.