Causes: Turkish misgovernment and revolts in her Christian subject provinces, which were barbarously put down (“Bulgarian atrocities”) arouse all Europe but Russia alone declares war.
Leaders: (1) Grand Duke Nicholas, Gurka, Grand Duke Michael, Alexander II.; (2) Suleiman Pasha, Osman Pasha, Mukhitar Pasha.
Chief Actions: (1) Passages of the Danube at Shitova, Shipka Pass, Plevna, Storm of Kars.
Results: By the peace of San Stefano as revised in the congress of the powers at Berlin, Montenegro, Servia and Roumania become independent; Bulgaria remains tributary but receives a Christian prince; Russia obtains large indemnity and part of Armenia and also Bessarabia.
CHINESE-JAPANESE WAR—1894-1895.
(1) Japan vs. (2) China.
Causes: Rival claims to suzerainty over Korea.
Leaders: (1) Ito, Yamagata, Oyama, Nogi; (2) Tso, Yeh, Wei.
Chief Actions: Yalu River, Port Arthur, Wei-hai-wei, Niuchwang.
Results: Treaty of Shimonoseki, signed April 17, 1895, removed Korea from Chinese influence; ceded Formosa and the Pescadores to Japan, and awarded to the latter an indemnity of $180,000,000.