1539 Revolt of the citizens of Ghent.
1540 Charles marches to Ghent and represses the rebellion with great severity. Order of Jesuits, founded by Ignatius Loyola in 1534, is confirmed by the pope.
1541 The ambassadors of France murdered by Charles’ governor of the Milanese. Francis I demands reparation and prepares for war. Expedition led by Charles against the pirates of Algiers. Great part of the fleet destroyed in a storm. The army returns, having accomplished nothing. Conquest of Chili begun and Santiago founded by Pedro de Valdivia.
1542 Perpignan besieged by the French and successfully defended by the duke of Alva.
1543 Alliance with Henry VIII. War between Charles and Francis in the Netherlands.
1544 Battle of Cerisole in Piedmont. The imperialists are defeated by the French. Charles invades France in conjunction with Henry VIII. Peace of Crespy. Charles renounces all claim to Burgundy and Francis to Naples, Flanders, and Artois.
1545 The pope grants Charles half the ecclesiastical revenues of Spain.
1547 Battle of Mühlberg. Charles defeats the Smalkaldic League.
1551 League between Henry II of France and the Protestant princes of Germany.
1552 Charles compelled to fly from Innsbruck. The French seize Toul, Verdun, and Metz. By the Peace of Passau, Charles grants religious liberty to the German Protestants. Charles besieges Metz but fails to take it.