Saraw, Chr. von, Die Feldzüge Karl’s XII, Leipsic, 1881.—Schiemann, Th., Russland, Polen, und Livland bis im XVII. Jahrhundert, in Oncken’s Allgemeine Geschichte in Einzeldarstellungen, Berlin, 1886-1887, 2 vols.; Die Ermordung Pauls und die Thronbesteigung Nikolaus I: neue Materialien veröffentlicht und eingeleitet, Berlin, 1902.—Schlözer, K. von, Russlands älteste Beziehungen zu Skandinavien und Konstantinopel, Berlin, 1847.—Schmucker, S. M., Memoirs of the Court and Reign of Catherine the Second, New York, 1855.—Schnitzler, J. H., Geheime Geschichte Russlands unter den Kaisern Alexander und Nikolaus, unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Krisis von 1825, Grimma, 1847, 2 vols., English translation, Secret History of the Court and Government of Russia Under the Emperors Alexander and Nicholas, London, 1847, 2 vols.; L’Empire des Tsars ou point actuél de la science, Paris, 1856-1869, 4 vols.; La Russie en 1812, Rostopchine et Koutouzof, Paris, 1863; Les institutions de la Russie depuis les réformes de l’empereur Alexander II, Paris, 1866, 2 vols.; Geschichte des russischen Reiches von der ältesten Zeit bis zum Tode des Kaisers Nikolaus, Leipsic, 1874.—Schuyler, E., Turkistan. Notes of a Journey in Russian Turkistan, Khokand, Bokhara, and Kuldja, London and New York, 1876, 2 vols.; Peter the Great, London and New York, 1884, 2 vols.—Ségur, P. P. Comte de, History of Russia and Peter the Great, London, 1829.—Semyovski, V. I., Gornozavodskie krestyane v vtoroi polovinye 18vo vyeka (The Peasants in Metallurgic Works During the Second Half of the Eighteenth Century), in “Russkaya Mysl,” 1900.—Sergeevitch, V. I., Vetche i knyaz: russkoe gosudarstvennoe ustroistvo i upravlyenie vo vremena knyazei rurikovitchei (Folkmote and Prince: the Russian Political System in the Days of the Rurik Princes), Moscow, 1867.—Shilder, N. K., Imperator Alexandr I (The Emperor Alexander I), St. Petersburg, 1897, 4 vols.; Tsarstvovanie imperatora Nikolaya I (The Reign of Emperor Nicholas I), St. Petersburg, 1901.—Shoemaker, M. M., The Great Siberian Railway, New York, 1903.—Shpilevski, S. M., Drevnie goroda i drugie bulgarsko-tatarskie pamyatniki v Kazanskoi gubernii (Ancient Cities and Other Bulgaro-Tatar Monuments in the Government of Kazan), Kazan, 1877.—Shtchebalsky, P., La régence de la tzarewna Sophie: épisode de l’histoire de Russie, 1682-1689, translation by Prince S. Galitzine, Carlsruhe, 1857; Tchtenie iz russkoi istorii (Readings from Russian History), Moscow, 1861, 6 vols.—Shumakr, A. A., Tsar-Osvoboditel (The Czar Liberator), St. Petersburg, 1901.—Skrine, F. H., The Expansion of Russia, 1815-1900, Cambridge, 1903.—Soloviov, S. M., Istorya Rossii s drevneyshikh vremyon (History of Russia from the Earliest Times), Moscow, 1863-1875, 29 vols.
Sergei Mikhailovitch Soloviov was born May 17th, 1820. In 1850 he became a professor at the university of Moscow. In 1877 he came into conflict with the reactionary policy of the government toward the universities, and demanded and obtained his dismissal. He died October 16th, 1879. Besides his monumental History of Russia he was the author of numerous monographs. The Relations Between the Russian Princes of the House of Rurik was of epoch-making importance in Russian historical literature. His History of the Fall of Poland has become the standard work on the subject and was translated into German (Gotha, 1865). But all his other works are cast into the shade by his stupendous History of Russia from the Earliest Times, in which he proposed to himself a task excelling, perhaps, the power of any single human being—the presentation of the entire history of his country, based exclusively on original research. The result has, therefore, been not wholly successful, and the later volumes present the appearance of a mere aggregation of materials hastily arranged. But the material is of the finest quality and will serve as a rich quarry for all future historians. Soloviov’s method of presentation is calm and dispassionate, his style tranquil and somewhat dry, but admirably clear. From Karamzin to Soloviov the gulf is wide indeed, and perhaps it will be well to present a few of the latter’s ideas in order to show the indebtedness that all modern historians of Russia owe to him. Russian society, like all primitive society, was in its origin tribal and based on kinship. The introduction of Varangian rule represents the beginnings of the dissolution of that society and the introduction of political society, based on territory. But society was still in a transitional stage. The warlike followers of the princes were free to renounce their allegiance to one master and to choose another in his stead, and the principle of kinship was still dominant within the house of Rurik itself, thus counteracting the separatist tendencies of the appanages. It was the colonisation of the north and east and the removal of the center of Russian life to the Volga, that first makes possible, as well as necessary, the centralisation of power: for the colonists settle on land that belongs to the prince and in cities founded by him, while the colonists themselves come from different parts of Russia and are unconnected by the bond of kinship. In the struggle that follows between the prince and the refractory, unsubmissive elements—whether of the common people or of the noble followers—the prince is victorious and the irreconcileables flee to the forests of the north or to the steppes of the south. Thus we have the origin of the robber bands, and of the Cossacks—another name for the same thing. But the removal of the centre to the Volga also implies the estrangement of Russia from European influences, and the Tatar rule plays in this only a subordinate and external part. The grand princes of Moscow in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries are thus seen to be the continuators of the policy of the grand princes of Suzdal in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, while the episode of the period of confusion represents an abortive attempt at the establishment of a milder rule by the Cossacks. Ivan III and Ivan IV, in their struggle with the foreigner, begin to appreciate the superior potency of European civilisation, and are the precursors of Peter the Great. But the new tendencies work with unceasing force during the intervening period, and those who resist the new tendencies become the nonconformists or Raskolniki (Old Ritualists). This tendency finds its parallel in Western Europe, where the task had been accomplished two centuries earlier; but not so the effort to reach the sea, which is a peculiar Russian phenomenon. Soloviov’s work reaches down to 1774.
Sorel, A., Histoire du traité de Paris, Paris, 1873; La question d’Orient au XVIII. siècle, Paris, 1889.—Stepniak, S. (pseudonym of Kravtchinski, S. M.), Underground Russia, New York, 1883; Russia under the Tsars. Rendered into English by W. Westall, New York, 1885; King Log and King Stork, a Study of Modern Russia, London, 1896.
Stepniak, whose real name was Sergius Mikhailovitch Kravtchinski, was born in South Russia, in 1852, of a noble family. When he left school he became an officer in the artillery, but his sympathy with the peasants soon led him into the revolutionary agitation, and he became identified with the terrorist party. In 1880 he was obliged to leave Russia, and after a few years’ stay in Switzerland and Italy he came to London, where he lived until 1895, when he was killed by a railway engine at a level crossing at Bedford Park, Chiswick. He was the author of numerous works on contemporary Russia, dealing chiefly with the revolutionary agitation and the condition of the peasantry.
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