PERFUMES
AND THEIR PREPARATION.

CONTAINING

COMPLETE DIRECTIONS FOR MAKING HANDKERCHIEF PERFUMES,
SMELLING-SALTS, SACHETS, FUMIGATING PASTILS; PREPARATIONS
FOR THE CARE OF THE SKIN, THE MOUTH,
THE HAIR; COSMETICS, HAIR DYES, AND
OTHER TOILET ARTICLES.

WITH A

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF AROMATIC SUBSTANCES; THEIR
NATURE, TESTS OF PURITY, AND WHOLESALE
MANUFACTURE.

BY
GEORGE WILLIAM ASKINSON, Dr. Chem.,
MANUFACTURER OF PERFUMERY.

Translated from the Third German Edition by
ISIDOR FURST.
(WITH CORRECTIONS AND ADDITIONS BY SEVERAL EXPERTS.)

Illustrated with 32 Engravings.

Copyrighted, 1892,
by
NORMAN W. HENLEY & CO.

PREFACE.

The great progress which the art of perfumery has made during recent times is due to several causes, the chief one of which is fully realized only by the manufacturer on a large scale, who stands, as it were, behind the scenes and has access to facts and information concerning the materials he uses, which are not so easily accessible to the dilettante in perfumery, or remain altogether unknown to the latter. This important factor is the advance in our knowledge of the physical and chemical properties of the several substances used in perfumery, whereby we can better discriminate between the genuine and the spurious, the choicest and the inferior, thus insuring, at the very start, a satisfactory result, instead of being compelled to resort to wasteful experimentation and empiricism. A better knowledge has also been gained of the sources of the commercial varieties of many of the crude products, and a better insight into the conditions affecting their qualities or properties. A more exhaustive study of the proximate principles of many of the essential oils has thrown an entirely new light upon this heretofore obscure class of bodies, placing into our hands new products of definite chemical composition, unvarying in physical properties, and many of them valuable additions to the perfumer’s stock of ingredients. Synthetic chemistry has also added to the list of materials required by the perfumer, and is surely going to add many more to it hereafter. Though some of these, like the new artificial musk, are not yet in a condition to enter into serious competition with the natural products, yet it is merely a question of time when the latter need no longer be depended upon. The increasing demands for the staple articles used by the perfumer have also caused a large increase in the cultivation of many important plants in various parts of the world, and have led to the establishment of new plantations, in some cases to such an extent that the commercial relations have been entirely revolutionized, new territories producing larger crops and a finer product than the old home of the plant. The exploration of hitherto unknown or imperfectly known countries has also largely added to the perfumer’s art, and is likely to continue to do this for a long time to come, since it is now well known that vast districts, more particularly in tropical Africa, are inhabited by a flora abounding in new odoriferous plants.

In spite of all this expansion of the perfumer’s stock of trade, however, which results in the periodical introduction of new compounds, there is a very large number of popular odorous mixtures which remain in steady demand, having taken such firm root among civilized nations that they are not likely to be displaced. It is more particularly with a view to afford information regarding these latter that a work like the present is desirable and necessary. A treatise on perfumery is expected to place into the hands of the purchaser reasonably reliable processes for preparing the most generally approved simple or compound perfumes, as well as accurate information concerning the origin and properties of the various ingredients, together with practical hints regarding the determination of their genuineness and purity.

It is a frequent complaint of those who make preparations after formulas published in works like the present, that they do not succeed in obtaining fully satisfactory products. Another complaint of purchasers of such works is this: that they fail to find formulas yielding preparations identical in every respect with certain celebrated perfumes which have made the reputation and fortune of certain firms. Regarding the first complaint, we would say that the failure lies generally with the complainant himself, through carelessness in the selection of the materials or disregard of the given directions. Concerning the second complaint, a moment’s reflection must convince any one that formulas which are the result of the study and experimentation of years, and the products of which are the main stock of trade of certain firms, are carefully guarded, and not likely to be communicated to others. Moreover, in many cases even a publication of the component parts would not be of much avail, for the manufacturer on the large scale has facilities for blending and seasoning his products which the maker on a small scale does not possess, and it is this part of the art particularly upon which the quality of the products depends.

In preparing the present treatise for the American public many changes were found necessary in the original text, in order to make the information given more correct or definite, and so bring the work more abreast of the present time. In addition to various improvements and additions made in the working formulas comprising the second portion of the work, the description of the natural products used as ingredients, upon the quality and selection of which the success of the perfumer mostly depends, has been carefully revised, and so far as the objects of this work required, completed by Dr. Charles Rice, Associate Editor of American Druggist, etc., in consultation with several experts in the art of perfumery.

CONTENTS.

Perfumes and their Preparation.

[CHAPTER I.]
THE HISTORY OF PERFUMERY.

The gratification of his senses is peculiar to man, and it is to this trait that we are indebted for all the arts. The activities which aimed at the gratification of the eye and ear developed into the creative arts and music, and in like manner human endeavor directed toward the stimulation of the sense of smell has in our time assumed the proportions both of an art and a science; for it was nothing but the advancement of chemistry that made it possible to fix all the pleasant odors offered by nature and to create new perfumes by the artistic combination of these scents. The preparation of perfumes is a very ancient art that is met with among all peoples possessed of any degree of civilization. It is particularly the ancient nations of the Orient which had in truth become masters in the manufacture of numerous perfumes.

The first perfume was the fragrant flower; it has continued to be so to the present day: the sprig of dried lavender flowers which we lay in the clothes-press was probably used for the same purpose by the contemporaries of Aristotle. In the Orient, which we may look upon as the cradle of the art of perfumery, the idea suggested itself early to substitute for the delicious fragrance of the flowers some substances of lasting odor; various sweet-scented resins supplied the material for this purpose. The use of these aromatic resins must have been very extensive: the ancient Egyptians alone consumed extraordinary quantities for embalming their dead. How highly the Oriental peoples in general prized perfumes can be learned from the Bible: the Jews (like the Catholics to the present day) employed an aromatic gum-resin (olibanum, frankincense) in their religious ceremonies; in the Song of Solomon mention is made of Indian perfumes, for instance, cinnamon, spikenard, myrrh, and aloes.

Altogether, incense played a prominent part in the religious ceremonies of the ancient Western Asiatic nations—among many peoples under a theocratic government it was even believed to be sinful to use incense for other than religious purposes. The Bible teaches us that Ezekiel and Isaiah protested against it, and that Moses even prescribed the preparation of certain kinds of incense for use in the tabernacle.

Among the most highly civilized people of antiquity, the Greeks, a large number of fragrant substances, as well as oils perfumed with them—that is to say, perfumes in the same sense as we still understand the term—was known; this will be no surprise to those familiar with the culture of this remarkable people. The odor of violets was the favorite among the Greeks; besides this they used the scent of the different mints, thyme, marjoram, and other aromatic plants. This was carried so far as to become a matter of fashion for the Greek fop to use only certain odors in the form of ointments for the hair, others for the neck, etc. In order to prevent this luxury which was carried to such an excess, Solon even promulgated a law that interdicted the sale of fragrant oils to Athenian men (the law did not apply to the women).

The Romans, who were the pupils of the Greeks in all the arts, carried the luxury with perfumes perhaps even farther. In ancient Rome there was a very numerous guild of perfumers called unguentarii; they are said to have had a street to themselves in Capua. A Patrician Roman anointed himself three times daily with precious, sweet-scented oils which he personally took along into his bath in golden vessels of exquisite workmanship, so-called nartheciæ. At the funeral of his wife Poppæa, Nero is said to have used as incense more odorous substances than could be produced in one year in Arabia, at that time the only reputed source of perfumes. This luxury went so far that during the games in the open amphitheatres the whole air was filled with sweet odors ascending from numerous censers arranged in a circle. The apartments of well-to-do Romans always contained large and very valuable urns filled with dried blossoms, to keep the air permanently perfumed.

Roman extravagance with perfumes was carried to such an excess that under the consulate of Licinius Crassus a law was passed which restricted the use of perfumery, there being good reason to fear that there would not be enough for the ceremonies in the temples.

With the migration of the almost savage Huns and Goths, the refinement of morals ceased, progress in civilization was retarded for centuries, and at the same time the use of perfumes disappeared entirely in Europe; but it was otherwise in the Orient. As an instance we may mention the prophecy of Mohammed, who promised in the Koran to the faithful in paradise the possession of black-eyed houries whose bodies were composed of the purest musk.

The Arabs, the ancient masters of chemistry, were also the first founders of the art of perfumery. Thus the Arabian physician Avicenna, in the tenth century, taught the art of preparing fragrant waters from leaves, and Sultan Saladin, in 1157, on his triumphal entry, had the walls of the mosque of Omar washed with rose water.

It was the intercourse with the Orient brought about by the Crusades that made Europeans again more familiar with the art of perfumery, and a number of new odors rapidly became known. Italy and France, in those times the representatives of culture, were the countries in which the preparation of perfumes was carried on on a large scale. Thus, for instance, we find the name of a Roman family preserved to the present day because one of its members had combined a sweet-scented powder, called Frangipanni after its inventor, which is still in favor, and because his grandson Mauritius Frangipanni had made the important discovery that by treating this powder with spirit of wine the fragrant substance could be obtained in a fluid form.

The fact has been frequently related and repeated, that Catherine de Medici, the wife of Henry II., had made use of the fashion of perfuming the body for the purpose of ridding herself of objectionable persons, by giving them scented gloves prepared and at the same time poisoned by a Florentine named René (Renato?). We think this tale to be simply a hair-raising fable—modern chemistry knows no substance the mere touch of which could produce the effect of a fatal poison; and it is scarcely credible that such a material had been known at that time and lost sight of since.

In the sixteenth century, especially at the court of Queen Elizabeth, perfumes were used with great extravagance; in fact, were looked upon as one of the necessaries of life. This luxury was carried still farther at the courts of the sumptuous kings of France; Louis XV. went so far as to demand every day a different odor for his apartments. A lady’s lover always used the same kind of perfume she did.

It is well known that among the Oriental nations perfumes are used so largely that even food is flavored with rose water, musk, etc.; and Indian and Chinese goods always possess a peculiar aroma which is so characteristic for certain products that it was considered to be a sign of genuineness; this was the case, for instance, with the patchouly odor which always adheres to Indian shawls.

A shawl-maker of Lyons, who had succeeded in perfectly imitating Indian shawls with reference to design and colors, spent a fabulous sum to obtain possession of the plant used by the Indian weavers for perfuming their wares. Despite the great outlay caused by the search for this plant, the manufacturer is said to have done a flourishing business with his “genuine” Indian shawls.

In more recent times the great extension of trade to the farthest countries of the globe, and still more the progress of chemistry, have made us familiar with a number of new perfumes. More than two hundred different aromatic substances are now known, and still they are far from being exhausted; every year new odoriferous plants become known, from which the chemist extracts perfumes. By this means, as well as by the enormous employment of perfumes in all grades of society, the art of their preparation has risen to a higher plane; out of empiricism, which alone prevailed a few decades ago, into the domain of the chemical sciences.

Since the appearance of the last edition of this book, the art of perfumery has made noteworthy progress both with reference to the knowledge of new aromatic substances and to improvement in the methods of their preparation; by the introduction of glycerin, solid and liquid vaselin, and salicylic acid into perfumery, one of its branches—hygienic cosmetics—has made an important advance.

At present it is particularly France and England whose perfumery industry is most extensive and which to some extent rule the markets of the world; southern France and Algiers especially furnish the best raw materials, the finest essential oils for the manufacture of perfumes at the chief centres, Paris and London.

[CHAPTER II.]
ABOUT AROMATIC SUBSTANCES IN GENERAL.

We apply the term perfume—which really means a fumigating material—to those substances which make an agreeable impression upon our sense of smell; the French call them briefly odeurs, i.e., odors. The high degree of development at present attained by this industry in France and England is the cause of the fact that all perfumes are generally sold under French or English names, which must be borne in mind by manufacturers in this country.

Perfumes or scents, however, exert not only an agreeable impression on the olfactory organ, but their effect extends to the entire nervous system, which they stimulate; when used in excess, they are apt to cause headache in sensitive persons; the laborers in the chemical factories where these substances are produced on a large scale, occasionally even suffer by reason of their stimulating action on the nerves. For this reason perfumes should never be employed otherwise than in a very dilute condition; this necessity arises from a peculiarity of the odorous substances which when concentrated and pure have by no means a pleasant smell and become fragrant only when highly diluted. Oil of roses, of orange flowers, or of jasmine, in fact nearly all aromatic substances, have an almost disagreeable odor when concentrated; only in an extremely dilute state they yield those delightful scents which we admire so much in the blossoms from which they are derived.

It will be easier to understand the almost incredible productiveness of perfumes if we cite as an instance that a few centigrams of musk placed on a sensitive scale can for years fill a large hall with their characteristic odor without showing an appreciable loss of weight, and still particles must separate from the musk and become evenly diffused through the air of the hall because the odor is perceptible throughout every part of it.

It would be an error, however, were we to assume that all aromatic substances possess the same degree of productiveness; some of them, as for instance the odorous principle of orris root, have a comparatively faint smell—a fact which must be borne in mind in the combination of perfumes. Even odors having a very similar effect on the olfactory nerves differ widely in their intensity; for instance, true oil (attar) of roses possesses an intensity more than twice as great as that of the rose geranium; many authorities agree in giving the proportion as three to eight, the first figure being that of rose oil, the second that of oil of rose geranium. Therefore, in order to produce perfumes of equal intensity (having the same effect on the olfactory nerves), we must dissolve in an equal quantity of the menstruum either three parts by weight of the attar of roses or eight parts of the oil of rose geranium.

In the prescriptions for the preparation of perfumes given in this book, these proportions have been carefully weighed; but it will be the office of the trained olfactory sense of the manufacturer to modify them for the various kinds of perfumery in such a way as to produce a truly harmonious pleasant odor.

Although we know many aromatic substances, we are still in ignorance as to the preparation of certain decidedly agreeable odors. Thus no one at present is able to produce the refreshing odor of the sea borne along on the wind, any more than we are able to reproduce the scent exhaled by the forest, especially after a warm rain; chemistry, though it has done much in the domain of perfumery, has thus far thrown no light upon it. Even certain vegetable odors—for instance, the delightful perfume exhaled by some Aroideæ and Primulaceæ—we cannot as yet preserve unchanged in perfumery. This opens an illimitable field for future activity to the progressive manufacturer.

In a book devoted to the production of perfumes it would certainly be in place to say something about the physiological relations of the olfactory sensations; but unfortunately this interesting part of physiology is still enveloped in great obscurity. All we know positively on this subject is that many particles of the odorous bodies evaporate and must come in contact with the olfactory nerves in order to produce the sensation of odor. There is no lack of experiments seeking to draw a parallel between sensations of smell and those of hearing, and, as is well known, we speak of a harmony and dissonance of odors as we do of tones. Piesse, the renowned perfumer, has even made an attempt to arrange the different odors in a “harmonic scale” having the compass of the piano, and to deduce therefrom a law for the mixture of the several aromatic substances. This attempt, although very ingenious, still lacks a scientific foundation. Piesse endeavors to combine the several scents like tones to produce chords in different scales; the chords of odors are to agree with those of tones. Thus far, however, no proof has been furnished that the olfactory nerve and the acoustic nerve have the same organization, and under this supposition alone could Piesse’s system be accepted as correct.

The Division of Aromatic Substances According to their Origin.

The majority of the substances used in perfumery are derived from the vegetable kingdom, but some come from the animal kingdom, and for others which do not occur complete in nature we are indebted to chemistry. As is well known, most blossoms possess a decided odor, which is extremely fragrant in some; yet it is not the blossoms alone, but in different genera various parts are distinguished by agreeable odors. In some plants the fragrant substances are contained in every part, as in different pines and the mints; in others, only in the fruits (nutmeg, vanilla), while the other parts are odorless; in certain plants only the rinds of the fruits contain an aromatic substance (oranges, lemons). In the Florentine Iris the entire plant is odorless—only its root stock possesses an agreeable, violet-like scent; while, for instance, in the camphor-tree an aromatic substance exists in the wood, in the cinnamon laurel in the bark, in the clove-tree mainly in the closed buds.

But taking the aromatic plants all together, we find that it is particularly their flowers which contain the finest odors, and that the majority of perfumes are prepared from their blossoms.

From the animal kingdom we take for the purposes of perfumery only a very small number of substances, among which, moreover, some peculiar relation exists; while, for instance, all men would call the odor of violets, roses, vanilla, etc., agreeable, the odor of some animal substances is decidedly obnoxious to many persons, though others like it—an observation which can be verified often with reference to musk.

With the advancement of science, chemical products find application in ever increasing numbers; among them are substances which owe their origin directly to the vegetable kingdom, while others, such as nitrobenzol and pine-apple ether, are only indirectly derived from it.

From what has been stated, we learn that our attention must be directed particularly to those scents which are derived from the vegetable kingdom. To the manufacturer of perfumery, however, it is a matter of importance whence the plants are obtained which he uses for the preparation of the odors; a very slight change in the soil often makes a great difference in the quality of one and the same species; we see this quite clearly in our ordinary strawberry. While the wild fruit is but small in size it has a delightful aromatic flavor, and the same species transplanted into gardens attains much greater size but possesses only a faint aroma not to be compared with that of the wild variety. The Lombardian violet is large and beautiful, but the German has a much more pleasant odor. On the other hand, the blossoms of the orange-tree obtained from the plants cultivated in pots cannot be compared with reference to their odor with these growing in the Riviera, the strip of coast land of the Mediterranean from Marseilles to Genoa. Altogether the last-named region and the south of France may be called the true garden of the perfumer; in the neighborhood of Grasse, Cannes, Nice, Monaco, and some other towns, extensive plots of ground are set with aromatic plants such as orange-trees, Acacia farnesiana, jasmine, violets, etc., whose products are elaborated in large, well-appointed chemical factories solely devoted to the extraction of their odors. The proximity of the sea-coast, with its favorable climate almost free from frost, permits the cultivation of southern plants, while in the more elevated parts of the country the adjoining Maritime Alps cause a more changeable climate which adapts them to certain other sweet-scented plants.

The great value of the annual production of the French flower farms at Cannes, Grasse, and Nice will be evident from the following figures. The harvesting and elaboration of the flowers at the points named give employment to fifteen thousand persons, and the average annual production is:

From these flowers were manufactured: 500,000 kgm. of pomades and essences, 1,000,000 litres of orange-flower water, 100,000 litres of rose water, and 1,200 kgm. of oil of roses.

Besides, in more northern countries we find here and there quite an extensive cultivation of aromatic plants; this is the case, for instance, in England, where lavender, crisp mint, and peppermint are planted on a large scale solely for their perfume. In northern Germany, too, we sometimes find caraway and sweet flag cultivated, for their peculiar odors only, in special fields.

As stated above, the place of growth of a plant exerts a powerful influence on the quality of the odors developed in it; this circumstance may be the reason why certain scents are prized most highly when they are derived from some definite regions, because the buyer is sure that the product from such places is of superior excellence.

Thus we find that English oils of lavender and peppermint are valued more highly and bring better prices than those from other points of production; some places even have, as it were, acquired a monopoly of certain odors. While the factories at Cannes produce the most perfect odors of roses, orange flowers, jasmine, and cassie, those at Nice are famous for the finest odors of violet, reseda (mignonette), and tuberose, and those of Italy for the odors of bergamot and orris root.

Unfortunately there are in the United States no extensive places of cultivation for odoriferous plants, although certain localities are very well adapted to the growth of violets, mignonette, roses, syringa, lavender, etc. Peppermint, however, is grown on a large scale in some parts of New York State and in Michigan. Of course such an enterprise, in order to be profitable, requires the intelligent co-operation of planters and duly qualified chemists, besides well-furnished laboratories and a considerable amount of capital; but under these conditions the prospects of gain are good.

At present the manufacturers of perfumery are almost entirely dependent upon English and French factories for their supply of odors. Owing to the absence of competition, the prices for the products, excellent though they are, are high, and become still more so when the crops are short. These conditions would be materially altered under active competition.

As indicated above, the odors used in perfumery may be divided into three distinct groups according to their origin. These groups are:

1. Odors of vegetable origin.

2. Odors of animal origin.

3. Odors of artificial origin—chemical products.

Before describing the preparation of true perfumes, it is necessary to become acquainted with the several raw materials required in their manufacture; that is to say, the simple odorous substances, their origin, their preparation, and their peculiar qualities. Besides these odorous raw materials, the art of perfumery makes use of a number of chemical and mineral products, whose quality largely influences that of the perfume to be made. These, therefore, likewise call for an appropriate description. Among these auxiliary substances are alcohol, glycerin, fixed oils, and solid fats, which play an important part not only in the preparation of the perfumes, but also enter into the composition of many. The liquid handkerchief perfumes always contain a large quantity of alcohol, the scented hair oils consist largely of fixed oils, while solid fats of animal or vegetable origin occur in the so-called pomades. As we shall see, the actual odors, owing to their extraordinary productiveness, constitute generally only a small percentage of the perfumes; the greatest bulk is usually either alcohol, fixed oil, or solid fat.

Hence, as the last-named substances, aside from the odoriferous materials, form the foundation of all articles of perfumery, the manufacturer must devote particular attention to their purity, and their qualities must be discussed in detail.

[CHAPTER III.]
ODORS FROM THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM.

The odors occurring in plants have their seat mostly in peculiar receptacles called oil glands in which the aromatic substances are stored and seem to take no further part in the vital processes of the plant. As has been intimated, the parts of the plant in which the aromatic substances are stored differ greatly; but in general it may be said that in most cases the flowers and fruits contain the odors; more rarely they may be found in the roots, in the bark, or in the wood, and in very few instances equally distributed throughout the whole plant. In some cases, however, we can obtain totally different odors from various parts of the same plant; this applies, for instance, to the orange-tree, whose blossoms furnish a different odor from the ripe fruits, and the latter must be distinguished from that obtainable from the leaves. The odorous substances occurring in the vegetable kingdom are either mobile liquids (essential oils), or they have a thicker consistence ranging from that of cream to that of soft cheese (balsams or gum-resins), or they are solid (resins). Aside from the fact that the term “essential oils” is quite incorrect, since the substances called by that name have nothing in common with oils except perhaps the liquid state, we are forced from a chemical standpoint to include among them even solid substances; the well-known camphor, a firm and waxy-looking body, belongs according to all its chemical properties into the same group as the so-called essential oils. The name “essential (or volatile) oils” is due to the fact that the volatile vegetable aromatic substances cause a stain on paper similar to that produced by oils and fats; but the stain made by the former disappears spontaneously after some time, while that due to true oils and fats persists. The disappearance of the stain depends on the evaporation of the vegetable aromatic substances—a quality not possessed by fats. Hence the volatile vegetable aromatic substances, in contradistinction from non-volatile fixed or fatty oils, have been designated as essential or volatile or ethereal oils. Inasmuch as the latter terms are the ordinary trade names for these substances, we are compelled to retain them despite their incorrectness. The French name for essential oils is essences; “essence de lavande,” for instance, is the French name for essential oil of lavender, and not for an alcoholic solution of the oil, as might be inferred from the usually accepted meaning of the English terms “essence of lavender,” “essence of peppermint,” etc., which mean solutions of these essential oils in alcohol.

As the localities where the raw materials—that is, the aromatic plants—are cultivated on a large scale naturally constitute the places of manufacture of essential oils, we find in southern France and in England the most extensive factories devoted exclusively to the preparation of perfumes. In the countries named, a favorable influence is exerted, too, by their situation near the sea, as well as by their trade with tropical lands from which additional aromatic plants are imported.

We have stated above that the manufacture of essential oils forms almost a monopoly in France and England; but there is no doubt that this country (the United States) likewise possesses many localities favorable to the cultivation of certain aromatic plants and the preparation of essential oils from them, so that this branch of industry could be carried on at a profit. For this reason we have in our descriptions devoted some attention to the conditions of growth required by such plants as might be raised here. We even find that some advantages are derived from the hot-house cultivation of some tropical plants.

An exact knowledge of the chemical properties of a substance is in all cases the first and fundamental condition for its preparation; it would appear necessary, therefore, that we should endeavor to gain complete information about the nature of vegetable aromatic substances before we enter upon the description of the various methods of their preparation.

The Chemical Constitution of Vegetable Aromatic Substances.

The sources of the odors derived from the vegetable kingdom can be divided, as stated above, into so-called essential oils, balsams, gum-resins or soft resins, and hard resins. Since the latter bear a certain relation to the essential oils from which they are formed through chemical combinations, we must consider them first.

The flowers, the fruits and their rinds, or even the wood of some plants form the receptacles of essential oils; if they are liquid they are called essential oils par excellence; if they are firm they are called camphors. Besides, there are intermediate states between them: oil of rose is always viscid and solidifies even at temperatures considerably above the freezing-point of water (see under Oil of Rose).

The bodies which are generally called essential oils are usually mixtures of a hydrocarbon with an oxygenated body, or an unchanged oil with another which has become altered by the influence of the oxygen of the air—a condition to which we shall recur later on. With reference to their elementary composition, essential oils may be divided into two groups:

1. Non-oxygenated essential oils.

2. Oxygenated essential oils.

The non-oxgenated essential oils consist only of two elements—carbon and hydrogen; the other group, as the name indicates, contains a third element in chemical combination, and consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Most of the essential oils of the first group have the same chemical composition: C₁₀H₁₆ (10 atoms of carbon combined with 16 atoms of hydrogen). Despite the like chemical composition, all the essential oils display different physical qualities; they vary in density, in refractive power, in boiling-point (often by many degrees), and, a matter of the greatest importance for our purposes, in their odor. We may state at once that but few essential oils can be said to have a pleasant odor; that of most of them is even disagreeable and narcotic to the olfactory nerves; it is only after the oil has been extremely diluted that the odor begins to become pleasant and to resemble that of the plant from which the oil was derived.

According to their physical qualities, essential oils may be described as fluids of a specific narcotic odor, colorless but very refractive, and easily inflammable. Only a few essential oils can be produced in such a state of purity as to appear perfectly colorless; usually they are more or less dark yellow in color, and some even possess a characteristic tint; thus oil of acacia is reddish-brown, oils of rose and absinth are green, oil of chamomile is blue. But a simple experiment will show that the color is not inseparably connected with the oil, for certain tinted oils can be obtained perfectly colorless by being distilled with another, less volatile oil which retains the coloring matter.

The boiling-point of essential oils is in general very high —between 160° and 288° of the centigrade thermometer (C.), or 320° to 550° F. The fact that we smell the essential oils in aromatic plants so distinctly despite their high boiling-point is an evidence of their exceedingly strong influence on the olfactory nerves.

A peculiar property of essential oils, which is of great importance in their preparation, is that of distilling over in large quantities with steam—both ordinary and superheated—that is, at temperatures at most only slightly exceeding 100° C. or 212° F. For this reason essential oils are usually obtained in this way, since they are but slightly soluble in water. Still, most of the oils dissolve in water in sufficient amount to impart to it their characteristic odor and thus to render it often very fragrant. Aqua Naphæ triplex (orange-flower water), rose water, etc., are such as have been distilled over with the essential oils, contain a small quantity of the latter in solution, and hence have a very agreeable odor.

All essential oils dissolve readily in strong alcohol, petroleum ether, benzol, bisulphide of carbon, in liquid and solid fats, in glycerin, etc.; we shall again recur to this important subject under the head of the preparation of the essential oils.

If a freshly prepared essential oil is at once excluded from the air by being placed in hermetically sealed vessels which it completely fills, and is kept from the light, the oil will remain unchanged for any length of time. But if an essential oil is exposed to the air, a peculiar, chemical alteration begins, which proceeds more rapidly and obviously if direct light acts upon the oil at the same time. The odor becomes less intense, the oil grows darker in color and more viscous, and also acquires a peculiar quality: it has a strong bleaching effect which is easily seen on the cork closing the bottle, which is beautifully bleached. After a certain time the oil changes to a viscid, less odorous mass, into balsam, and the latter, after the prolonged influence of the air, finally changes into a brownish, odorless substance, into resin.

These remarkable physical and chemical alterations depend on the fact that the essential oil absorbs oxygen from the air, which it puts into a peculiar condition in which it exerts increased chemical activity and is termed ozonized oxygen. One of the most marked of these effects is the uncommonly strong bleaching power of ozonized or active oxygen. When an essential oil that has altered so far as to contain ozonized oxygen—which is shown by its bleaching vegetable coloring matters such as the juice of cherries, red beets, tincture of litmus, etc., agitated with it—is cooled, we notice the separation from it of a usually crystalline, colorless, and odorless body called stearopten, while the remaining liquid part is called elæopten. Stearopten always contains oxygen, while elæopten still consists only of carbon and hydrogen.

In the formation of the stearopten we distinctly see the beginning process of resinification, which, therefore, is nothing but an oxidation (combination of the essential oil with oxygen). It should, however, be stated that as to many essential oils this is not proven by actual observation. Many of them are not known to us as naturally existing without any stearopten. Balsams are essential oils which have to a great extent changed into resin, which they contain in solution, and thereby have become more or less viscid. If the process of oxidation goes still farther, eventually the greater portion of the essential oil becomes oxidized, the entire mass grows firm, and then possesses only a very faint odor which is due to the last remnants of the unchanged essential oil.

Since aromatic substances during evaporation become mixed with air, it appears probable that they act upon the olfactory nerves only at the moment when they become oxidized.

The entire process of resinification of oil of turpentine can be followed very clearly on the pitch pine (Pinus austriaca, or other species of Pinus), just as oil of turpentine in general can be taken as an example of an essential oil on which the peculiarities of the non-oxygenated essential oils may be easily studied. In many localities the pitch pine is partly deprived of its bark when it has reached a certain age. From the trunk exudes oil of turpentine which in the air becomes more and more viscid by the absorption of oxygen and changes into balsam, called turpentine. The latter is collected and distilled with water, when the unchanged oil of turpentine passes over with the steam, while the odorless resin (rosin or colophony) remains behind in the stills.

The above-mentioned qualities of the essential oils indicate naturally how those used in perfumery, which are often very costly, are to be preserved. For this purpose small strong bottles should be chosen which are closed with well-fitting glass stoppers, over which is applied a glass capsule ground to fit tightly over the neck of the bottle. These bottles should always be completely filled (hence small bottles should be selected), and kept tightly closed, in the dark. As the action of oxygen is retarded by low temperatures, it is advisable to keep bottles containing essential oils in a cool cellar. But care must be had never to pour out an essential oil in the cellar near an open candle light. The vapors are very apt to take fire, as they are quite inflammable.

As there are a great many aromatic vegetable substances, so there are numerous odors, or, to retain the customary though incorrect appellation, numerous essential oils. All of these, however, cannot be used in the art of perfumery, as some of them do not possess a pleasant odor, as is the case, for instance, with oil of turpentine. (We may state here, however, that very pure oil of turpentine, distilled from certain Coniferæ, has an agreeable, refreshing odor which at present has found application in perfumery under the title of forest perfume or pine-needle essence.) Besides, there are numerous essential oils which, while possessing a very pleasant odor, still cannot be used in perfumery except for very cheap preparations, though they are employed in much larger quantities in the manufacture of liqueurs. Such oils are: oil of cumin, fennel, juniper, absinth, etc.

As we shall return to this subject in connection with the essential oils which are used in perfumery in general, we will now consider at greater length the aromatic vegetable substances which are employed for the manufacture of fragrant odors.

[CHAPTER IV.]
THE AROMATIC VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES EMPLOYED IN PERFUMERY.

Every fragrant portion of a plant can be used for the preparation of an aromatic substance, and therefore for the manufacture of a perfume. Hence we are unable, in the following enumeration of the aromatic vegetable substances, to make any claim to absolute completeness; for every new scientific expedition may acquaint us with hitherto unknown plants from which the finest odors may be obtained. We have said above that we have not yet even fixed in our perfumes all the odors of the known aromatic plants, and therefore there is still a large field open to the progressive manufacturer.

In the following pages we must restrict ourselves to the description of those aromatic vegetable substances which are used in the laboratories of the most advanced and scientific perfumers for the manufacture of odors. At the same time we lay particular stress on the fact that the knowledge of these raw materials is a matter of the greatest importance to the manufacturer of perfumes because it enables him to appreciate the differences, often very minute, between fine and inferior qualities. Every manufacturer who aims at the production of fine goods must make it the rule to use nothing but the best raw materials.

The price of the latter is apparently disproportionately high; for all that, only the most expensive materials should be bought, for it is the only kind that can be used. Let us give but two instances in illustration. We find in the market, grades of vanilla the prices of which are as one to four; the latter is fresh and contains the aromatic substance in large amount; the former is old, dry, and worthless, with an artificial glossy surface and little odor. The differences in the price are still greater in an aromatic substance of animal origin, musk, the cheapest grades of which are altogether artificial and perfumed with a mere trace of genuine musk.

Of course, the same remark applies to the raw materials of animal origin and to the chemical products, all of which should be of the greatest purity obtainable.

The aromatic substances at present employed in perfumery for the extraction of odors are the following.

Allspice.
Latin—Pimenta; French—Piment; German—Piment; Nelkenpfeffer.

This spice consists of the fruit berries, at first green, later black, of the Eugenia Pimenta, indigenous to Central America and the Antilles. It is chiefly used in the manufacture of liqueurs, less in perfumery, though it may be employed as an addition to certain strong odors, particularly that of oil of bay; it serves very nicely for scenting cheap soap.

Anise.
Latin—Pimpinella Anisum; French—Anis; German—Anis.

This well-known plant, which is cultivated in many localities on a large scale, belongs to the Order of Umbelliferæ. The seeds contain about three per cent of a very aromatic essential oil which finds application in the manufacture of soap and in cheap perfumery; it is chiefly used as a flavoring for liqueurs. Good anise must have a light green color, an agreeable sweetish odor, and a sharp taste. In order to increase the weight, anise is occasionally moistened with water; such seeds look swollen, are apt to become slimy, and then furnish a less fragrant oil. Anise is not to be confounded with star-anise, which will be mentioned hereafter.

Balm.
Latin—Melissa officinalis; French—Melisse; German—Melissenkraut.

Melissa officinalis, an herbaceous plant with large, beautiful flowers, which grows wild in our woods, contains a very sweet-smelling oil in small quantities. This can be extracted by distillation from the fresh herb, and furnishes very fine perfumes.

Oil of Melissa of the market is, however, usually an East Indian oil, derived from Andropogon citratus. See under Citronella.

Bay (Sweet Bay).
Latin—Laurus nobilis; French—Laurier; German—Lorbeerfrüchte.

The fruits of the bay-tree contain much essential oil which is used less in the manufacture of perfumery than for scenting soap. Venice is the most important point of export. See the next article.

Bay (West Indian).
Latin—Myrcia acris; French—(Huile de) Bay; German—Bay (-Oel).

The essential oil obtained from the leaves of this tree, a native of the West Indies, possesses a very aromatic, refreshing odor somewhat resembling that of allspice. It is known in the market as bay oil or oil of bay. During the last decade or so its use has largely extended, and, while formerly almost unknown on the continent of Europe, has become an important article for the perfumer. An alcoholic distillate, prepared by distilling the fresh leaves with the crude spirit from which rum is otherwise obtained, is known as bay-rum, and is used as a pleasant and refreshing wash for the skin. Bay-rum may also be made by dissolving the oil, together with certain other ingredients, in alcohol.

Benzoin.
Latin—Benzoinum; French—Benjoin; German—Benzoëharz.

This gum-resin, which possesses a pleasant vanilla-like odor, comes from a tree belonging to the Order of Styracaceæ, the Styrax Benzoin, and probably another species of Styrax, indigenous to tropical Asia, especially Siam and Sumatra. The collection of benzoin is very similar to that of pine resin; the bark of the tree is cut open, the exuding juice is allowed to harden on the trunk, and is thus brought into commerce. Benzoin differs according to its origin, the age of the tree, etc., and in commerce a number of sorts (Siam, Penang, Palembang, and Sumatra) are distinguished. As a rule, benzoin comes in lumps ranging in size to that of a child’s head. They are of a light gray color and inclose white, almond-shaped pieces. The finest quality, known as Siam benzoin after its source, usually is in small pieces (Siam benzoin in tears) which are translucent, light yellow to brown externally, but milky white on fracture, and have a strong vanilla odor. Less fine but still very good is Siam benzoin in lumps, consisting of large reddish-brown pieces inclosing white particles. All other kinds mentioned above come from the island of Sumatra, in lumps the size of a fist. What was formerly known as Calcutta benzoin formed large friable pieces of a dirty reddish-gray color. Siam as well as Penang benzoin often contains, besides benzoic acid, also cinnamic acid; it is not known why it is not a regular constituent. The worst quality is sold as “benzoin sorts,” consisting of brownish pieces without white spots; they are often mixed with splinters of wood, bast fibres, and fragments of leaves, and can be used only for cheap perfumes.

Good benzoin, besides the qualities named, must have a sweetish and burning sharp taste, it should be very friable, and when heated in a porcelain capsule should emit vapors (benzoic acid) of an acrid taste and a pronounced aromatic odor; it should dissolve completely in strong alcohol. In perfumery, benzoin serves for the preparation of many odors, washes, and the manufacture of benzoic acid. The latter will be further discussed under the head of aromatic substances obtained by means of chemistry.

Bergamot.
Latin—Citrus Bergamia; French—Bergamote; German—Bergamottefrüchte.

The bergamot is the fruit of a tree belonging to the Order of Aurantiaceæ, which is cultivated in Calabria. The tree is unknown in a wild state. The golden-yellow or greenish-yellow fruits, resembling a lemon in shape, have a bitter and at the same time acid pulp; the thin rind contains a very fragrant oil which is used largely in the manufacture of fine perfumery and soaps, and is exported chiefly from Messina and Palermo.

Bitter Almonds.
Latin—Amygdala amara; French—Amandes amères; German—Bittere Mandeln.

The well-known fruits of the bitter almond-tree (Amygdalus communis, var. amara). There are no definite botanical differences between the sweet and the bitter almond-tree. The only distinct difference is the character of the respective fruits. The aromatic substance obtained from bitter almonds is not present fully formed in the fruits, but results from the chemical transformation of the amygdalin they contain; the latter body is absent in sweet almonds.

Cajuput Leaves.
Latin—Folia Cajuputi.

The leaves of Melaleuca Cajuputi, a tree found in the Indian and Malay Archipelago, which have an aromatic odor resembling that of cardamoms. In the Orient the leaves are used as incense and for the extraction of the oil they contain.

Camphor Wood.
Latin—Lignum Camphoræ; French—Bois de camphre; German—Campherholz.

The wood of the Camphor-tree, native of China and Japan, is exceedingly rich in essential oil, the firm, white, and strong-scented camphor. The latter is usually prepared from the wood at the home of the tree, especially in Formosa and Japan, so that the wood hardly forms an article of commerce and is here enumerated only for completeness’ sake. In China and in Japan, however, it is largely used for the manufacture of cloth-chests, trunks and wardrobes, as these are never invaded by insects.

Caraway Seed.
Latin—Semen Carvi; French—Carvi; German—Kümmelsamen.

This plant, Carum Carvi, which is largely cultivated in Germany, contains in its seeds from four to seven per cent of essential oil which is extracted by distillation. Genuine caraway seed is brownish-yellow, pointed at both ends, quite glabrous on examination with a lens, and marked with five longitudinal ribs. Caraway is occasionally confounded with cumin seed, from Cuminum Cyminum, which is easily recognized with a lens: the seeds of the latter plant have fourteen longitudinal ribs and are hairy. The use of caraway in perfumery is limited to ordinary goods, but in the manufacture of liqueurs it is largely employed.

Cascarilla Bark.
Latin—Cortex Cascarillæ; French—Cascarille; German—Cascarillarinde.

This is the bark of a West Indian tree, Croton Eluteria, belonging to the Order of Euphorbiaceæ, native of the Bahamas. It occurs in commerce in the shape of pieces the length and thickness of a finger; externally it is white and fissured, internally of a brown color and resinous. Good qualities should be free from dust and fractured pieces (sifted cascarilla), of a warm aromatic taste, and a very agreeable odor which becomes more marked on being heated. Another variety of cascarilla derived from South Africa, Cascarilla gratissima, has very fragrant leaves which can be used immediately as incense, just as cascarilla in general is employed in perfumery chiefly for fumigating powders and waters.

Cassie.
Latin—Acacia farnesiana; French—Cassie; German—Acacie.

The flowers of Acacia farnesiana (Willd.), one of the true acacias, native of the East Indies, which flourishes farther north than the other varieties, cultivated largely in southern France for the delightful odor which resembles that of violets but is more intense. The flowers are collected and made to yield their odorous principle by one of the methods to be described hereafter. The plant which is generally but falsely called Acacia in this country, viz., Robinia pseudoacacia, likewise bears very fragrant flowers which undoubtedly can be made to yield a perfume by some one of the usual methods; but so far we know of no perfume into which the odor of Robinia flowers enters. Moreover, it is not alone the flowers of Acacia farnesiana which may be utilized for the preparation of the cassie perfume; the black currant, Ribes niger, contains in its flowers an odor closely resembling the former; this is actually used in the preparation of an oil sold under the name of “oil of cassie.” The latter plant flourishes in our northern States and would answer as a substitute for Acacia farnesiana, which cannot stand our northern winters.

Cedar Wood.
Latin—Lignum Cedri; French—Bois de cèdre; German—Cedernholz.

The wood met with in commerce is derived from the Virginian juniper tree, Juniperus virginiana, which is used in large quantities for inclosing lead pencils. The chips, the offal from this manufacture, can be employed with advantage for the extraction of the essential oil contained therein. Long uniform shavings of this wood are also used for fumigation, and the sawdust for cheap sachet powders. Cedar wood is reddish-brown, fragrant, very soft, and splits easily. In the perfumery industry it usually passes under the name of the “cedar of Lebanon,” although the wood from the last-mentioned tree (Cedrus libanotica) has quite a different agreeable odor, is very firm, reddish-brown, and of a very bitter taste—qualities by which it is readily distinguished from the other.

Cinnamon.
Latin—Cinnamomum; French—Canelle; German—Zimmtrinde.

Cinnamon consists of the bark of the young twigs of the cinnamon-tree, Cinnamomum zeylanicum, indigenous to Ceylon. Good cinnamon consists of thin, tubular, rolled pieces of bark which are smooth, light brown (darker on fracture), of a pronounced characteristic odor, and a burning and at the same time sweet taste. The most valuable in commerce is that from Ceylon; the thicker bark is less fine.

Chinese cinnamon or cassia (French, Cassie; German, Zimmtcassia) consists of the bark of the cassia-tree, an undetermined species of Cinnamomum indigenous to Southern China; this is grayish-brown and has the general properties of true cinnamon, but it as well as the oil extracted from it has a less fine odor than cinnamon or oil of cinnamon. A very fine kind of Cinnamon has for a number of years past appeared on the market under the name of Saigon cinnamon. It is very rich in oil, and is exported from Cochin-China. Besides the true oils of cinnamon and cassia, other essential oils are met with in commerce under the names of oil of cinnamon flowers and oil of cinnamon leaves, but their odor is not so fine as that of the former. The so-called cinnamon flowers are the unripe fruits of various cinnamon laurels, collected after the fall of the blossoms. They form brownish cones the length of the nail of the little finger, and furnish an essential oil whose odor resembles that of cinnamon.

Citron.
Latin—Fructus Citri; French—Citron; German—Citronenfrüchte.

The fruit of a tree, Citrus medica, indigenous to northern India, but largely cultivated in the countries situated around the Mediterranean and in other countries. It is cultivated both for the pleasant acid juice of the fruit and for their fragrant rinds. Only the latter are of value for our purposes. It occurs in European commerce under the name of Citronat or citron peel. Good commercial citron peel should be in quarters and as fresh as possible, which is shown by its softness, the yellow color, and the strong odor. Old peel looks shrunken and brownish and has but little pleasant odor.

Citron Flowers.
Latin—Flores Citri; French—Fleurs de citron; German—Citronenblüthen.

The flowers of the citron-tree (Citrus medica) are white, fragrant, and contain a very aromatic essential oil; but as the oil is always extracted from the fresh flowers, the latter do not form an article of commerce.

Cherrylaurel Leaves.
Latin—Folia Laurocerasi; French—Laurier-cérise; German—Kirschlorbeerblätter.

The leaves of this tree (Prunus Laurocerasus), which is largely cultivated for officinal purposes, furnish an odorous substance completely identical with that contained in bitter almonds, or, rather, formed in them under certain conditions. As the extraction of the odorous substance from bitter almonds is much cheaper, cherry-laurel is but rarely used.

Citronella.
Latin—Andropogon Nardus; French—Citronelle; German—Citronella.

This grass, which, like the oil prepared from it, is called citronella, is a native of northern India, and is largely cultivated in Ceylon, where large quantities are worked for the oil; for this reason the grass itself is seldom met with in commerce. Its odor is somewhat similar to that of the Indian lemon grass, that of verbena, and that of several other aromatic plants, in place of which citronella is frequently employed.

Much confusion exists in much of the current literature regarding the source and synonymy of the Indian grass oils and allied products. The following list contains the most important ones:

1. Andropogon citratus DC.—Lemon Grass. The oil is known as Lemon Grass Oil, Indian Verbena Oil or Indian Melissa Oil, or simply Oil of Verbena or Oil of Melissa.

2. Andropogon laniger Desf.—This is the Juncus odoratus or Herba Schoenanthi of older pharmacy. No oil is prepared from this.

3. Andropogon muricatus Retz.—Cuscus or Vetiver. Source of Oil of Vetiver.

4. Andropogon nardus L.—Citronella. Source of Oil of Citronella.

5. Andropogon Schoenanthus L.—Ginger Grass. The oil is known as Oil of Ginger Grass, Oil of Geranium Grass, Oil of Indian Geranium or simply Oil of Geranium, also Oil of Rose Geranium [“Rose” is here a corruption of the Hindostanee name of the plant, viz., Rusa], Oil of Rusa Grass, Oil of Rusa, Oil of Palmarosa.—The two terms “Oil of Geranium” and “Oil of Rose Geranium” should be abandoned for this oil, to avoid confusion with the “Oil of (Rose) Geranium” obtained from Pelargonium. See under “Geranium.”

Clove.
Latin—Caryophylli; French—Clous de girofle; German—Nelkengewürz.

This well-known spice comes from a tree, Caryophyllus aromaticus, native of the Moluccas, and largely cultivated at Zanzibar, Pemba, and elsewhere. It consists of the closed buds. The main essential of good quality is the greatest possible freshness, which may be recognized by the cloves being full, heavy, reddish-brown, and of a fatty aspect, and they must contain so much essential oil (about 18 per cent) that when crushed between the fingers the latter should be stained yellowish-brown. Before buying, this test should always be made, and attention paid to the fact whether the whitish dust is present in the wrinkles about the head. We have found in commerce cloves from which the essential oil had been fraudulently extracted with alcohol and hence were worthless; such cloves may be recognized by the faint odor and taste, but especially by the absence of the whitish dust.

Cucumber.
Latin—Cucumis sativus; French—Concombre; German—Gurke.

The well-known fruits of this kitchen-garden plant, though not strictly sweet-scented, possess a peculiar refreshing odor which has found application in perfumery. Certain products belonging under this head require the odor of cucumber, and therefore this plant is to be included among the aromatic plants in a wider sense.

Culilaban Bark.
Latin—Cortex Culilavan; French—Ecorce culilaban; German—Kulilabanrinde.

The bark of Cinnamomum Culilavan Nees, a plant indigenous to the Molucca islands, used to occur in commerce in the shape of long, flat pieces of a yellowish-brown color, with an odor like a mixture of cinnamon, sassafras, and clove oils. It is rarely met with now.

Dill.
Latin—Semen Anethi; French—Aneth; German—Dillsamen.

This plant, Anethum graveolens, which is indigenous to the Mediterranean region and southern Russia, contains in all its parts, particularly in the seeds, an oil of a peculiar odor, which is used as a perfume for soap, also in cheap perfumery, and especially as a flavoring for liqueurs.

Elder Flowers.
Latin—Flores Sambuci; French—Sureau; German—Hollunderblüthen.

This bush, Sambucus niger, which grows wild in Europe, bears umbellar flowers which are officinal, but contain besides a pleasant odor which can be extracted from them. The odor of the flowers deteriorates on drying, hence in perfumery only the fresh flowers should be used. The American elder (Sambucus canadensis) could easily be used in place of it.

Fennel (Seed and Herb).
Latin—Fœniculum; French—Fenouil; German—Fenchel.

This plant, Fœniculum vulgare, Order Umbelliferæ, is largely cultivated in Europe. It contains an essential oil in all its parts, but especially in the seeds. The plant is rarely used in perfumery, but more frequently in the manufacture of liqueurs. The herb, dried and comminuted, enters into the composition of some cheap sachets.

Frangipanni (see Plumeria).

Geranium.
Latin—Pelargonium roseum; French—Géranium; German—Geranium.

This plant, originally indigenous in South Africa, contains in its leaves an essential oil whose odor closely resembles that of roses. At present it is cultivated on a large scale in many parts of France and in Turkey, solely for the purposes of perfumery. This plant would grow freely in our Southern and Middle States, and could be cultivated with advantage for the extraction of its highly valued perfume.

The terms “Oil of Geranium” and “Oil of Rose Geranium” ought to be restricted in commerce to the oil obtained from true geranium (Pelargonium). Unfortunately, they are yet very commonly applied to an East Indian oil obtained from a species of Andropogon (see under Citronella).

Hedyosmum Flowers.

On the Antilles there are a number of bushes belonging to the Genus Hedyosmum, Order Chloranthaceæ, whose flowers possess a magnificent, truly intoxicating odor. Thus far these odors seem to have been accessible only to English perfumers. The perfumes sold under this name by Continental manufacturers are merely combinations of different odors.

Heliotrope.
Latin—Heliotropium peruvianum; French—Héliotrope; German—Heliotropenblüthen.

The flowers of this plant, which flourishes well in all temperate or tropic countries, possess a very pleasant odor, about the preparation of which we shall have more to say hereafter. In Europe only French perfumers have manufactured it; according to the author’s experiments, however, its extraction presents no more difficulty than that of any other plant.

A synthetic, chemical product, known as piperonal, related to vanillin and cumarin, possesses the odor of the heliotrope in a most remarkable degree. It is therefore much used to imitate the latter. In commerce it is known as heliotropin.

Honeysuckle.
Latin—Flores Loniceræ; French—Chèvre-feuille; German—- Geisblattblüthen.

This well-known climbing plant, Lonicera Caprifolium, found in many of our garden bowers, contains an exceedingly fragrant oil in its numerous flowers, from which the author has prepared it. [Some of the American species of honeysuckle would, no doubt, likewise yield an essential oil.] The oil sold in commerce under this name is not obtained from these flowers, but is an imitation of the odor conventionally accepted for it. The true oil of honeysuckle, first prepared by the author, far surpasses these imitations in fragrance.

Hyssop.
Latin—Hyssopus officinalis; French—Hyssope; German—Ysopkraut.

Hyssop possesses a strong odor, a very bitter taste, and is used only for cheap perfumery, but more frequently in the manufacture of liqueurs.

Jasmine.
Latin—Jasminum odoratissimum; French—Jasmin; German—Jasminblüthen.

True jasmine—not to be confounded with German jasmine (Philadelphus coronarius, known here as the mock orange, or the Syringa of cultivation) which is likewise employed in perfumery—flourishes particularly in the coast lands of the Mediterranean, where it is cultivated as a dwarf tree. The odor obtained from the flowers is one of the finest and most expensive in existence, and for this reason it would be well worth trying the cultivation in our southern States. At present nearly all the true jasmine perfume (pomade, extract, etc.) comes from France.

Lavender.
Latin—Lavandula vera; French—Lavande; German—Lavendel.

True lavender, which belongs to the Order of Labiatæ that contains many aromatic plants, is one of the most ancient in our art; it was early used in Greece for purposes of perfumery. Although true lavender flourishes throughout central Europe, its cultivation on a large scale is carried on chiefly in England, and the oil of lavender from English factories is most highly prized. Much lavender is also grown in France, but the product, though very fine, has a much lower value.

True lavender is to be distinguished from spike-lavender (French, aspic; German, Spik-Lavendel), whose odor is similar to that of true lavender, but furnishes a much less aromatic perfume. The cultivation of lavender in this country (U. S.) might give good results.

Lemon.
Latin—Citrus Limonum; French—Limon; German—Limonenfrüchte.

The fruits of the South European lemon-tree, not to be confounded with citrons, resemble the latter in appearance, but they are smaller, have a more acid taste and a thinner rind. The peel contains an essential oil which is very similar in odor to that of the citron. Hence the oils of lemon, limetta (from Citrus Limetta), and citron are used for the same purposes; but when the three oils are immediately compared, an experienced olfactory organ perceives a marked difference between them.

Lemon Grass.
Latin—Andropogon citrates; French—Schoenanthe; German—Citronengrass.

This grass, which bears a close resemblance to citronella, is largely cultivated, especially in India and Ceylon, for the essential oil it contains. The odor of the grass is similar to that of verbena, so that its oil is often used as an adulterant or rather as a substitute for the former. (Compare the article on “Citronella.”)

Lilac.
Latin—Flores Syringæ; French—Lilas; German—Fliederblüthen.

This plant, Syringa vulgaris, a native of Persia but fully acclimated in Europe and in this country, has very fragrant flowers, the odor of which can be obtained only from the fresh blossoms.

A recently discovered liquid principle, now known as terpineol (C₁₀H₁₇OH), which exists in many essential oils, and in these, in the portion boiling between 420° and 424° F., possesses the lilac odor in a most pronounced degree, and to its presence in the lilac flowers the peculiar odor of the latter is, no doubt, due. It is obtainable in the market under the name lilacine.

The Syringa of the florists is not the true lilac, but the same as the Mock Orange, viz., Philadelphus coronarius.

Lily.
Latin—Lilium candidum; French—Lis; German—Lilienblüthen.

The remarks made under the head of Wallflower apply equally to the blossoms of the white garden lily: strange to say, they are not used in perfumery, and all the so-called odors of lily are mixtures of several aromatic substances. The author has succeeded in separating from the flowers, by means of petroleum ether, the delightful odor present in large amount in the blossoms of this plant, and has employed it in the manufacture of magnificent perfumes.

Mace.
Latin—Macis; French—Macis; German—Muscatblüthe.

This substance is the dried arillus covering the fruits of Myristica fragrans, the so-called nutmegs. The tree bearing them is indigenous to a group of islands in the Indian Archipelago and is cultivated especially on the Molucca islands. Although mace is in such close relation with nutmeg, yet, strange to say, the aromatic substance differs decidedly from that of the nut. Mace of good quality forms pieces of orange-yellow color; they are fleshy, usually slit open on one side, have a strong odor, tear with difficulty, and are so oily that when crushed they stain the fingers brownish-yellow. Mace is largely used in the preparation of sachets and particularly for scenting soap. In England, soap scented with mace is well liked.

Magnolia.
Latin—Magnolia grandiflora; French—Magnolia; German—Magnoliablüthen.

The magnolia (Magnolia grandiflora), indigenous to the warmer parts of South, Central, and North America, bears large white flowers having a delightful odor which can be extracted by means of petroleum ether. In the same way, truly intoxicating perfumes may be obtained from other varieties of magnolia. In our climate these plants flourish only in conservatories, and in their home no steps have yet been taken to utilize these natural treasures in a proper way; hence European manufacturers invariably produce the perfume called magnolia by combination of different odors.

Marjoram.
Latin—Herba majoranæ; French—Marjolaine; German—Majorankraut.

This plant, Origanum Majorana (vulgare), frequently cultivated in kitchen gardens, possesses in all its parts a strong odor due to an essential oil. The latter, which is quite expensive, is but little used, and probably only for culinary purposes.

“Oil of Origanum” in English-speaking countries is intended to mean Oil of Thyme (from Thymus vulgaris), and never means Oil of Marjoram.

Meadow Sweet.
Latin—Spiræa ulmaria; French—Reine des prés; German—Spierstaude.

This plant is frequent in Europe on damp meadows, and contains an aromatic substance closely allied to oil of wintergreen, which occurs also in the Canadian variety.

Mint.
Latin—Mentha; French—Menthe; German—Minze.

The varieties of mint claiming our attention are the following: Mentha piperita, Peppermint (French: Menthe poivrée; German: Pfefferminze).—Mentha viridis, Spearmint (French: Menthe verte; German: Grüne Minze).—Mentha crispa, Crisp Mint (French: Menthe crépue [or frisée]; German: Krause Minze).

All of the mints have a pleasant odor; besides the plants named above, we may mention Mentha aquatica, whose odor faintly but distinctly recalls that of musk. Like lavender, Mentha crispa and M. piperita are cultivated particularly in England, and the English oils are the most superior. Mentha piperita is also largely cultivated in the United States. Mentha viridis and its oil are almost exclusively confined to this country.

Musk-Seed.
Latin—Semen Abelmoschi; French—Grains d’ambrette; German—Bisamkörner.

The tree, Hibiscus Abelmoschus, indigenous to Africa and India, bears fruit capsules containing reddish-gray seeds with grooved surface, so-called musk-seeds. They have an odor resembling musk, but much weaker, though it becomes more pronounced when the seeds are bruised. Besides this species of Hibiscus, other plants belonging to the same order are aromatic and are also used in perfumery.

Myrrh.
Latin—Myrrha; French—Myrrhe; German—Myrrhe.

The gum-resin which we call myrrh has long been known in the East, where it was celebrated as one of the finest perfumes, along with spikenard and frankincense. The tree, Balsamodendron Myrrha (or Commiphora Myrrha Engler) is indigenous to the countries bordering the Red Sea to about 22° N. Lat.; the gum exudes partly spontaneously from the trunk. In European commerce myrrh appears in different sorts; that called myrrha electa or myrrha in lacrimis is the most precious; it forms tears of a golden yellow to brown color, traversed by white veins; they have a pleasant smell. That called myrrha naturalis is inferior, but on being heated develops the characteristic aroma. In commerce a product is sometimes offered by the name of myrrh which is nothing but cherry-tree gum scented with genuine myrrh.

Myrtle Leaves.
Latin—Myrtus communis; French—Myrte; German—Myrtenblätter.

The leaves of this Southern European plant diffuse a pleasant odor; the oil to which it is due can be extracted by distillation; yet the perfumes usually called myrtle are not obtained from the plant, but are made by the combination of several aromatic substances. The aromatic water known, especially in France, as “eau d’anges” is obtained by the distillation of myrtle leaves with water.

Narcissus.
Latin—Narcissus poeticus; French—Narcisse; German—Narcissenblüthen.

The blossoms of this favorite garden plant, which is cultivated on a large scale near Nice, have a pleasant, almost narcotic odor which may be extracted in various ways; though the greatest part of the so-called narcissus perfumes are made artificially.

Another species of Narcissus (Narcissus Jonquilla) is frequently cultivated in warm countries for its pleasant scent; but the perfumes generally found in the market under the name of Extract, etc., of Jonquil are artificial compounds.

Nutmeg.
Latin—Myristica; French—Muscade; German—Muscatnüsse.

These nuts are almost spherical in shape, the size of a small walnut, of a grayish-brown color externally, and usually coated with a faint whitish-gray covering (which is lime). Internally they are reddish-brown, with white marbled spots. Good fresh nutmegs should be dense, heavy, and so oily that when pierced with a needle a drop of oil should follow the withdrawal of the latter. Nuts which are hollow, wormy, and of a faint odor cannot be used in perfumery. Oil of nutmeg is used extensively in perfumery, but is rarely employed pure, more commonly in combination with other strong odors.

Olibanum.
Latin—Olibanum; French—Encens; German—Weihrauch.

This gum-resin, employed even by the ancient civilized nations of Asia, especially as incense for religious purposes, comes from East African trees, various species of Boswellia. Fine olibanum appears in light yellow tears, very transparent and hard, whose pleasant though faint odor becomes particularly marked when it is thrown on hot coals. In perfumery olibanum is used almost exclusively for pastils, fumigating powders, etc. Pulverulent olibanum constitutes an inferior quality and is often adulterated with pine resin.

Opopanax.
Latin—Resina Opopanax.

The root stock of an umbelliferous plant, indigenous in Syria, now recognized at Balsamodendron Kafal, furnishes a yellow milky sap containing an aromatic resin with an odor resembling that of gum ammoniacum. At least the opopanax now obtainable in the market is derived from this source. True opopanax resin, such as used to reach the market formerly, is now unobtainable, and its true source is yet unknown. Opopanax oil is used in perfumery to some extent.

Orange Flowers.
Latin—Flores Aurantii; French—Fleurs d’oranges; German—Orangenblüthen.

The flowers of the bitter orange tree (Citrus vulgaris), as well as those of the sweet (Citrus Aurantium), contain very fragrant essential oils, which differ in flavor and value according to their source and mode of preparation. See below, under Oil of Orange. The leaves, too, contain a peculiar oil used in perfumery.

Orange Peel.
Latin—Cortex Aurantii; French—Ecorce d’oranges; German—Orangenschalen.

The very oily rinds of the orange occur in commerce in a dried form; such peels, however, can be used only in the manufacture of liqueurs; in perfumery nothing but the oil from the fresh rinds is employed, and this is generally obtained by pressure.

Origanum.

See Marjoram, and Thyme.

Orris Root.
Latin—Radix Iridis florentinæ; French—Iris; German—Veilchenwurzel.

The Florentine sword-lily, Iris florentina, which often grows wild in Italy but is largely cultivated, has a creeping root-stock covered with a brown bark which, however, is peeled from the fresh root. Orris root occurs in commerce in whitish pieces which are sometimes forked; the surface is knotty, and the size may reach the thickness of a thumb and the length of a finger. When fresh, the roots have a disagreeable sharp odor, but on drying they attain an odor which may be said to resemble that of the violet; but on comparing the two odors immediately, a considerable difference is perceptible even to the untrained olfactory sense. Orris root should be as fresh as possible; this may be recognized by its toughness, the great weight, and the white, not yellow color on fracture. It is very frequently used for sachets and for fixing other odors.

Palm Oil.
Latin—Oleum Palmæ; French—Huile de Palme; German—Palmöl.

Palm oil, a fixed oil derived from Elais guineensis, possesses a peculiar odor faintly recalling that of violets which is easily extracted. Although not used thus far in perfumery, personal experiments have convinced the author that the odor can be employed in the manufacture of cheap perfumes.

Patchouly.
Latin—Pogostemon Patchouly; French—Patchouly; German—Patschulikraut.

This herb, indigenous to the East Indies and China, in appearance somewhat resembling our garden sage, is used in the countries named as one of the most common perfumes; many East Indian and Chinese goods (such as Cashmere shawls, India ink, etc.) owe their peculiar odor to the patchouly herb which is very productive. In this respect it can be compared only with the nutmeg, but exceeds even this in intensity. This herb is not known very long in Europe, but at present it is imported in large quantities from India; in commerce it occurs in small bundles consisting of stems and leaves (collected before flowering).

Peru Balsam.
Latin—Balsamum peruvianum; French—Beaume du Pérou; German—Perubalsam.

This balsam, imported from Central America (San Salvador), is derived from Toluifera Pereiræ; incisions are made in the bark and trunk of the tree, from which the balsam exudes. Peru balsam is of a syrupy consistence, thick and viscid, brownish-red in thin, blackish-brown in thick layers. Its taste is pungent, sharp, and bitter, afterward acrid; its odor is somewhat smoky, but agreeable and balsamic. Peru balsam is often sophisticated with fixed oil; this can be readily detected by agitation with alcohol, by which the oil is separated. But if castor oil is the adulterant, this test is not applicable, as castor oil dissolves with equal facility in alcohol.

Pine-apple.
Latin—Bromelia Ananas; French—Ananas; German—Ananas.

The fruits of this plant, originally derived from the East Indies, have a well-known narcotic odor which can be extracted from them.

In commerce we often meet with a chemical product called pine-apple ether which will be described at greater length under the head of chemical products used in perfumery. Pine-apple ether has an odor usually considered to be like that of the fruit, but when the two substances are immediately compared a great difference will be detected. Pine-apple ether finds quite extensive application in confectionery for the preparation of lemonades, punch, ices, etc. If the true pine-apple odor is to be prepared from the fruits, care must be had to use ripe fruits; the unripe or overripe fruits possess a less delicate aroma.

Pink.
Latin—Dianthus Caryophyllus; French—Œillet; German—Nelkenblüthen.

The odor of this favorite garden plant can be easily extracted from the flowers by means of petroleum ether; but the genuine odor of pink is hardly ever met with in perfumery; the preparations sold under this name being usually artificial mixtures of other odors.

Plumeria.
Latin—Plumeria; French—Plumeria; German—Plumeriablüthen.

All the Plumerias, indigenous to the Antilles, contain very fragrant odors in their flowers. To the best of our knowledge, these odors have not yet been extracted from the flowers, and all the perfumes sold under this name (sometimes also called Frangipanni) are merely combinations of different odors.

Reseda (Mignonette).
Latin—Reseda odorata; French—Mignonette; German—Reseda.

This herbaceous plant, probably indigenous to northern Africa, but long domesticated in Europe and cultivated in gardens, is well known for its refreshing odor. The latter, however, is very difficult to extract and is yielded only to the method of absorption (enfleurage). The true odor of reseda, owing to the mode of its preparation, is very expensive, and for this reason nearly all perfumes sold under this name are produced from other aromatic substances.

Rhodium.
Latin—Lignum Rhodii; French—Bois de rose; German—Rosenholz.

This is derived from two climbing plants, Convolvulus scoparius and Convolvulus floridus, indigenous to the Canary islands, and is the root wood of these plants. Its odor resembles that of the rose, and the wood is frequently used for cheap sachets and for the extraction of the contained essential oil which was formerly (before oil of rose geranium was made on the large scale) employed for the adulteration of genuine oil of rose.

Rose.
Latin—Rosa; French—Rose; German—Rosenblüthen.

Horticulture has produced innumerable varieties from wild species of roses, which differ in size, form, color, as well as in odor. We instance here only the various odors exhaled by tea roses and moss roses. Accordingly, perfumers likewise distinguish different odors of roses. Cultivated on a large scale exclusively for the extraction of the essential oil, we find different varieties of roses in India, in European Turkey (Rosa Damascena), in Persia, and in Southern France. In this country (U. S.), too, oil of roses could be manufactured with advantage.

The wild rose, sweet brier, French églantine, possesses a delicate but very fugitive odor, and therefore the perfume sold as wild rose is usually prepared from other substances with the addition of oil of roses. The same remark applies to the odor called “white rose” and to those sold as “tea rose,” “moss rose,” etc.

Rosemary.
Latin—Rosmarinus officinalis; French—Romarin; German—Rosmarin.

This plant, indigenous to Southern and Central Europe, contains pretty large quantities of an aromatic oil in its leaves and flowers; the oil has a refreshing odor and therefore is frequently added in small amounts to fine perfumes.

Rue.
Latin—Ruta graveolens; French—Rue; German—Raute.

This plant, cultivated in our gardens and also growing wild here, has long been employed for its strong odor; in perfumery rue, in a dry state as well as its oil, is occasionally used.

Sage.
Latin—Salvia officinalis; French—Sauge; German—Salbei.

All varieties of sage, the one named being found most frequently growing wild in the meadows of Southern Europe, and extensively cultivated in Europe and in this country, possess a very agreeable, refreshing odor which adheres for a long time even to the dried leaves; these are therefore very suitable for sachets, tooth powders, etc.

Santal Wood.
Latin—Santalum album; French—Santal; German—Santalholz.

The tree from which this wood is derived is indigenous to Eastern Asia, to the Sunda Islands. The wood is soft, very fragrant, and is also erroneously called sandal wood. The latter is of a dark reddish-brown color, not fragrant, and is derived from Pterocarpus santalinus, a tree indigenous to Southern India, and the Philippine Islands; it is of value to the dyer and the cabinet-maker, but to the perfumer only for coloring some tinctures. For the purposes of perfumery use can be made only of santal wood (white or yellow santal wood) which possesses a very pleasant odor resembling that of oil of rose. Formerly essential oil of santal was employed for the adulteration of oil of rose. White and yellow santal wood comes from the same tree—the former from the smaller trunks of Santalum album.

Sassafras.
Latin—Lignum Sassafras; French—Sassafras; German—Sassafrasholz.

Sassafras wood, derived from the root of the American tree Sassafras officinalis, appears in commerce in large bundles. It has a strong peculiar odor; in the bark of the root the odor is even more marked. In the European drug trade Sassafras saw dust is also met with, but this is not rarely mixed with pine saw dust which has been moistened with fennel water and again dried. In perfumery sassafras wood is less used for the manufacture of volatile odors than for scenting soap. Since the principal constituent of oil of sassafras, viz., safrol, has been found to be contained in the crude oil of Japanese camphor, the latter has to a very large extent taken the place of the natural oil.

Spikenard.
Latin—Nardostachys Jatamansi; French—Spic-nard; German—Nardenkraut.

This plant, belonging to the Order of Valerianaceæ, which generally possess a strong and more or less unpleasant odor, forms one of the main objects of Oriental perfumery; in the East Indies, where the plant grows wild on the mountains, the odor is held about in the same estimation as that of roses, violets, etc., in Europe. Spikenard was probably known to the ancient Babylonians and Assyrians, for in the Bible, in the Song of Solomon, we find this plant repeatedly mentioned and praised for its pleasant odor. As the odor of spikenard is not appreciated in Europe, the plant is rarely met with in commerce. All parts of the plant are aromatic, but use is chiefly made of the root, consisting of fine fibres which are tied in bundles the thickness of a finger.

Star-Anise.
Latin—Illicium; Semen Anisi stellati; French—Badiane; German—Sternanis.

Star-anise occurs in commerce in the form of eight-chambered capsules, each compartment containing one glossy seed, and is derived from a Chinese tree, Illicium anisatum. The fruits are brown, woody; the seed has a sweetish taste and an odor resembling that of anise. Outside of perfumery star-anise is used in the manufacture of liqueurs. Recently a drug has appeared in commerce under the name of star-anise which possesses poisonous qualities, and is derived from another variety of Illicium (Illicium religiosum). While this may be of no consequence to the perfumer, it is important to the manufacturer of liqueurs who always uses star-anise for fine goods and never oil of anise.

Storax.
Latin—Styrax; French—Styrax; German—Storax.

This product which belongs among the balsams is derived from a small tree, Liquidambar orientalis, and is obtained from the bark by heating with water, and also by pressure. It forms a viscid mass like turpentine, has a gray color, a burning sharp taste, an agreeable odor, and is easily soluble in strong alcohol; but the odor becomes pleasant only after the solution is highly diluted. Storax has the peculiar property of binding different, very delicate odors, to render them less fugitive, and for this reason finds frequent application in perfumery.

Oriental storax should not be confounded with American storax which occurs in commerce under the name of Sweet Gum, Gum Wax, or Liquidamber, and is derived from Liquidambar styraciflua. It is quite a thick transparent liquid, light yellow, gradually becoming more and more solid and darker colored, but is often used in place of the former, though its odor is less fine.

Sumbul Root.
Latin—Radix Sumbul; French—Soumboul; German—Moschuswurzel.

The Sumbul plant (Ferula Sumbul), indigenous to Turkestan and adjoining countries, has a light brown root covered with thin fibres, which has a penetrating odor of musk. Owing to this quality it is frequently employed in perfumery, especially for sachets. In commerce a distinction is made between East Indian and Bokharian or Russian sumbul, due to the different routes by which the article arrives. The latter, which possesses the strongest odor, probably because it reaches the market in a fresher state, is the most valuable.

Sweet Almonds.
Latin—Amygdala dulcis; French—Amandes douces; German—Süsse Mandeln.

The almond-tree, Amygdalus communis, occurs in two varieties, undistinguishable by botanical characteristics. One bears sweet, the other bitter fruits (comp. Bitter almonds, page 24). Both are odorless and contain much fixed oil. The special odor of bitter almonds forms only in consequence of the decomposition of a peculiar body (amygdalin), present in bitter almonds, when it comes in contact with water. Good almonds are full, juicy, light brown, without wrinkles, and have a sweet mild taste. A rancid taste characterizes staleness. The fixed or expressed oil, both that of the sweet and that of the bitter almonds (which are identical in taste, odor, and other properties), is used in perfumery for fine hair oils, ointments, and some fine soft soaps.

Sweet-Flag Root.
Latin—Radix Calami; French—Racine de glaïeule; German—Calmuswurzel.

The calamus root met with in commerce is the creeping root-stock of a plant (Acorus Calamus), occurring in all countries of the northern hemisphere, and frequent in European and American swamps. The root-stock is spongy, about as thick as a finger, many-jointed, and of a yellowish color, with many dark streaks and dots. Inside the color is reddish-white. The odor is strong and the taste sharp and burning.

Sweet-Pea.
Latin—Lathyrus tuberosus; French—Pois de senteur; German—Platterbsenblüthen.

Sweet-pea flowers, which have a very delicate odor, yield it to the usual solvents. The odor bears some resemblance to that of orange flowers, but is rarely used alone; it is generally combined with others to make it more lasting.

Syringa.
Latin—Philadelphus coronarius; French—Seringat, Lilac; German—Pfeifenstrauchblüthen.

The white flowers of this garden bush have a very pleasant odor which resembles that of orange flowers, in place of which it can be used, in the cheaper grades of perfumery. This plant which flourishes freely in our climate deserves more attention by perfumers than it has hitherto received, since it appears to furnish an excellent substitute for the expensive oil of orange flowers, as above stated, in cheap perfumes.

Thyme.
Latin—Thymus Serpyllum; French—Thym; German—Thymian.

This well-known aromatic plant, which grows most luxuriantly on a calcareous soil, has an odor which is not unpleasant but is in greater demand for liqueurs than for perfumes. Here and there, however, it is employed for scenting soap. Common thyme, Thymus vulgaris, is used for the same purposes.

Under the name of Oil of Thyme, in the English and American market, is generally understood the oil of Thymus vulgaris, which is largely distilled in the South of France. This oil is commonly misnamed Oil of Origanum.

Tolu Balsam.
Latin—Balsamum tolutanum; French—Beaume de Tolu; German—Tolubalsam.

This balsam is derived from a tree indigenous to the northern portion of South America, Toluifera Balsamum, belonging to the Order of Leguminosæ. The balsam, which is obtained by incisions into the bark of these trees, is at first fluid, but becomes firm in the air owing to rapid resinification; in commerce it appears in a viscid form ranging from that of Venice turpentine to that of colophony. Its color varies from honey-yellow to reddish-brown; the taste is at first sweet, then sharp, it softens under the heat of the hand, and when warmed or sprinkled in powder form on glowing coals it diffuses a very pleasant odor recalling that of Peru balsam or vanilla. It shares with storax and Peru balsam the valuable property of fixing volatile odors and is often employed for this purpose, but is also frequently used alone in fumigating powders, tooth powders, etc. Adulteration of Tolu balsam with Venice turpentine or colophony is not rarely met with.

Tonka Beans.
Latin—Fabæ Tonkæ; French—Fèves de Tonka; German—Tonkabohnen, Tonkasamen.

The South American tonka tree, Dipteryx odorata, bears almond-shaped drupes almost as long as the finger, which contain seeds two to four centimetres in length, the so-called tonka beans. These occur in European commerce in two sorts, the so-called Dutch and English tonka beans; the former are large, full, covered externally with a folded brown to black skin, and white inside. The latter are barely two-thirds the size of the former, almost black, and less glossy. The odor of the tonka bean is due to a volatile crystalline substance, coumarin, which often lies on the surface and in the wrinkles of the bean in the form of delicate, brilliant crystalline needles. Coumarin exists also in many other plants, for instance, in sweet woodruff (Asperula odorata), deer-tongue (Liatris odoratissima), etc.

Tuberose.
Latin—Polianthus tuberosa; French—Tubérose; German—Tuberose.

This beautiful and very fragrant plant is frequently cultivated in Southern France; its pleasant odor, however, owing to its great volatility, can never be used pure, but must always be fixed with one of the above-mentioned balsams. As has been stated in connection with several aromatic plants, tuberose could be grown in our southern States with advantage for the extraction of its odor.

Vanilla.
Latin—Vanilla aromatica, Vanilla planifolia; French—Vanille; German—Vanille.

The vanilla, which may justly be called a king among aromatic plants, is a climbing orchid indigenous to tropical America. It is cultivated on a most extensive scale on the islands of Reunion and Mauritius; largely also in Mexico, and in some other countries. The agreeable odor is present in the fruit. These form three-lobed capsules about the length of a lead pencil and the thickness of a quill. Externally they are glossy brown, have a fatty feel, and show in the depression a white powder which appears crystalline under a lens. Internally good fresh vanilla is so oily that it stains the fingers on being crushed and is filled with numerous shining seeds the size of a small pin’s head. These properties, together with the plump appearance and great weight, mark good qualities. Old vanilla, whose odor is fainter and less fragrant, may be recognized by its wrinkled surface, the absence of the white dust, the slight weight, and the bent ends of the capsules. Fraudulent dealers endeavor to give such old goods a fresher appearance by coating them with almond oil or Peru balsam. “Vanilla de Leg” is recognized as the first quality of Mexican vanilla. Like most odors, that of vanilla does not become pleasant until it is sufficiently diluted.

Verbena.
Latin—Verbena triphylla, Aloysia citriodora; French—Verveine; German—Verbenakraut.

The leaves of this Peruvian plant, especially on being rubbed between the fingers, exhale a very pleasant odor which is due to an essential oil. The odor resembles that of fine citrons, or rather that of lemon grass; hence these two odors are frequently mistaken for each other. Owing to the high price of true oil of verbena, all the perfumes sold under this name are prepared from oil of lemon grass (see under Citronella) and other essential oils.

Vetiver.
Latin—Andropogon muricatus; French—Vétyver; German—Vetiverwurzel.

Vetiver, also called cuscus, and sometimes iwarankusa (though this is more properly the name of Andropogon lanifer; see above, under Citronella), is the fibrous root-stock of a grass indigenous to India, where fragrant mats are woven from it. The odor of the root somewhat resembles that of santal wood, and is used partly alone, partly for fixing volatile perfumes. Shavings of the root are frequently employed for filling sachet bags.

Violet.
Latin—Viola odorata; French—Violette; German—Veilchenblüthen.

The wonderful fragrance of the March violet is due to an essential oil which it is, however, difficult to extract. For this reason genuine perfume of violets, really prepared from the flowers, is among the most expensive odors, and the high-priced so-called violet perfumes are generally mixtures of other fine odors, while the cheaper grades are made from orris root.

Volkameria.

This plant, Volkameria inermis, often cultivated in conservatories, has a very agreeable odor. The perfume called by this name, however, is not obtained from the plant, but is produced by the mixture of several aromatic extracts from other plants.

Wallflower.
Latin—Cheiranthus Cheiri; French—Giroflé; German—Levkojenblüthen, Goldlack.

The wallflower, a well-known biennial garden plant belonging to the Order of Cruciferæ, according to recent experiments yields a very fine odor to certain substances and may be employed in the manufacture of quite superior perfumes. The preparations usually sold as wallflower, however, are not made from the flowers of this plant, but are mixtures of different odors.

Wintergreen.
Latin—Gaultheria procumbens; French—Gaulthérie; German—Wintergrünblätter.

This herbaceous plant, indigenous to North America, especially Canada and the Northern and Middle United States, where it grows wild in large quantities, has a very pleasant odor due to an essential oil and a compound ether which can also be produced artificially. The odor of wintergreen serves chiefly for scenting fine soaps.

Ylang-Ylang.

This plant, Unona odoratissima, indigenous to the Philippine Islands, contains an exceedingly fragrant oil. It is brought into commerce from Manilla.

Owing to climatic relations, it is impossible for the perfumer to procure all the above-enumerated substances in the fresh state; many of them he is forced to purchase through the drug trade, and he should bear in mind to give the preference always to the freshest obtainable goods. At times it is not possible to utilize the materials at once for the extraction of the odors and they must be kept for some time. The vegetable substances should always be stored in an airy, not over dry room; and the material should be often inspected. If a trace of mouldiness shows itself, the material must be worked at once, since, if the mould is allowed to go on, the fragrance will suffer and may be destroyed altogether.

The aromatic substances here enumerated are those which have actually found general employment in perfumery; but the list is not complete, since every aromatic plant can be used for the extraction of its odor. Of course, this is connected with some difficulties, but even in the present state of our knowledge they can all be overcome. When a new odor has been prepared, the art of the perfumer consists in ascertaining by many experiments those substances which harmonize with it; for with few exceptions the finest grades of perfumes are not single odors but combinations of several which are in accord.

Even among our domestic plants there are numerous finds to be made by the perfumer, and in this respect we refer particularly to some very fragrant kinds of orchids in our woods and to the delightful odor of the lily of the valley. As to the latter, a perfume is met with in commerce under this name, but its odor bears no resemblance to that of the flower.