The Jovian Satellites
For nearly three centuries after their discovery in 1610, the only known moons of Jupiter were the four large Galilean satellites. In 1892 E. E. Barnard, an American astronomer, found a much smaller fifth satellite orbiting very close to the planet, and between 1904 and 1974 eight additional satellites were found far outside the orbits of the Galilean satellites. The outer satellites are quite faint and presumably no more than a few tens of kilometers in diameter, and all have orbits that are much less regular than those of the five inner satellites. Four of them revolve in a retrograde direction, opposite to that of the inner satellites and Jupiter itself.
In 1975 the International Astronomical Union assumed the responsibility for assigning names to the non-Galilean satellites of Jupiter. Following tradition, they named the inner satellite Amalthea for the she-goat that suckled the young god Jupiter. The outer eight were named for lovers of Jupiter: Leda, Himalia, Lysithea, Elara, Ananke, Carme, Pasiphae, and Sinope. For the non-Galilean satellites, the “e” ending is reserved for satellites with retrograde orbits; those with normal orbits have names that end in “a.”
Because they are so large, the Galilean satellites have attracted the most attention from astronomers. More than fifty years ago large telescopes were used to estimate their sizes, and a careful series of measurements of their light variation showed that all four always keep the same face pointed toward Jupiter, just as our Moon always turns the same face toward Earth. Also, the subtle gravitational perturbations they exert on each other were used to determine the approximate mass of each.
The pattern of the Galilean satellites changes from hour to hour, as seen from Earth. Viewed edge-on, the nearly circular orbits produce an apparent back and forth motion with respect to Jupiter. These images recreate the kinds of observations first made by Galileo in 1610.
Callisto, the outermost Galilean satellite, is larger than the planet Mercury. It also has the lowest reflectivity, or albedo, of the four, suggesting that its surface may be composed of some rather dark, colorless rock. Callisto takes just over two weeks to orbit once around Jupiter.
Ganymede, which requires only seven days for one orbit, is the largest satellite in the Jovian system, being only slightly smaller than the planet Mars. Its albedo is much higher than that of Callisto, or of the rocky planets such as Mercury, Mars, or the Moon. In 1971 astronomers first measured the infrared spectrum of reflected sunlight from Ganymede and found the characteristic absorptions of water ice, indicating that this satellite is partially covered with highly reflective snow or ice.
Europa, which is slightly smaller than the Moon, circles Jupiter in half the time required by Ganymede. Its surface reflects about sixty percent of the incident sunlight, and the infrared spectrum shows prominent absorptions due to water ice; Europa appears to be almost entirely covered with ice. However, its color in the visible and ultraviolet part of the spectrum is not that of ice, so some other material must also be present.
Io, innermost of the Galilean satellites, is the same size as our Moon. It orbits the planet in 42 hours, half the period of Europa. Like Europa, it has a very high reflectivity, but, unlike Europa, it has no spectral absorptions indicative of water ice. Before Voyager, identification of the surface material on Io presented a major problem to planetary astronomers.
When the sizes and masses of these satellites were measured, astronomers could calculate their densities. The inner two, Io and Europa, both have densities about three times that of water—nearly the same as the density of the Moon, or of rocks in the crust of the Earth. Callisto and Ganymede have densities only half as large, far too low to be consistent with a rocky composition. The most plausible alternative to rock is a composition that includes ice as a major component. Calculations showed that if these satellites were composed of rock and ice, approximately equal quantities of each were required to account for the measured density. Thus the two outer Galilean satellites were thought to represent a new kind of solar system object, as large as one of the terrestrial planets, but composed in large part of ice.
In 1973 the attention of astronomers was dramatically drawn to Io when Robert Brown of Harvard University detected the faint yellow glow of sodium from the region of space surrounding it. It seemed that this satellite had an atmosphere, composed of the metal sodium! Continued observations showed, however, that this was not an atmosphere in the usual sense of the word. The gas atoms were not bound gravitationally to Io, but continuously escaped from it to form a gigantic cloud enveloping the orbit of the satellite. Fraser Fanale and Dennis Matson of the Caltech Jet Propulsion Laboratory suggested that bombardment of Io by high-energy particles from the Jovian Van Allen belts was knocking off atoms of sodium by a process called sputtering, releasing these atoms and allowing them to expand outward to form the observed sodium cloud. No one anticipated then that powerful volcanic eruptions on Io might also be contributing to this remarkable gas cloud.
The Galilean satellites in orbit around Jupiter, along with the outer satellites, constitute a miniature solar system. Here they are shown relative to the size of Mercury and that of the Moon. The portrayal of their internal and external composition is based on theoretical models that preceded the Voyager flybys. [PC-17054AC]
This image of Io’s extended sodium cloud was taken February 19, 1977, at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory’s Table Mountain Observatory. A picture of Jupiter, drawings of the orbital geometry, and Io’s disk (the small circle on the left) are included for perspective. The sodium cloud image has been processed for removal of sky background, instrumental effects, and the like. This photograph demonstrates that the cloud is highly elongated and that more sodium precedes Io in its orbit than trails it. [P-20047]
This picture of the satellites was developed just as the first space probe reached the Jovian system. In the next chapter we describe the Pioneer program by which scientists reached out across nearly a million kilometers of space to explore Jupiter, its magnetosphere, and its system of satellites.
Pioneer 10 was launched on March 2, 1972, at 8:49 p.m. from Cape Canaveral, Florida. A powerful Atlas-Centaur rocket served as the launch vehicle, which propelled the space probe to its goal nearly a billion kilometers away. The beauty of the night launch was enhanced by the rumbling thunder and flashing lightning of a nearby storm.